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Bio II - Exam #2 Terms
Plant reproduction, plant defenses, fungi, animal diversity, protosomes, deuterostomes
109
Biology
Undergraduate 1
02/10/2014

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Term
Morphogenesis
Definition
Developmental changes leading to reproductive maturity such as the periodic production of flowers and cones and adding structures through meristems.
Term
Phase change
Definition
The developmental transition during which plants become able to respond to internal/external signals to promote flowering.
Term
Light-dependent pathway
Definition
One of the four genetically regulated pathways to flowering also termed the photoperiodic pathway. Includes short day, long day and day neutral plants. Light is used as a cue that allows plants to flower when abiotic conditions are optimal.
Term
Short day plants
Definition
Plants that use the light dependent pathway; they flower when daylight becomes shorter (fall)than a critical length. They need a long length of dark.
Term
Long day plants
Definition
Plants that use the light-dependent pathway; they flower when daylight becomes longer (summer). They need a short length of dark.
Term
Day neutral plants
Definition
Plants that use the light dependent pathway; they flower when mature regardless of day length.
Term
Phytochrome
Definition
A light receptor molecule that triggers a cascade of events that leads to flowering. A red light sensitive pigment; pigment protein.
Term
Cryptochrome
Definition
A light receptor molecule that triggers a cascade of events that leads to flowering. A blue light sensitive pigment; pigment protein.
Term
CONSTANS
Definition
The transcription of this gene is regulated by changes in phytochrome and cryptochrome. These changes results in CO (transcription factor) which results in the expression of the gene LFY.
Term
LFY
Definition
One of the key genes that tells a meristem to switch over to flowering.
Term
Temperature dependent pathway
Definition
A flowering pathway characterized by its link to cold weather and vernalization.
Term
Vernalization
Definition
A period of chilling before flowering that is required by temperature dependent plants. It is unrelated with the light dependent pathway.
Term
Gibberellin dependent pathway
Definition
A flowering pathway where low levels of the gibberellin hormone delays flowering. Gibberellin enhances the expression of the LFY gene; it binds to the promoter of the LFY gene. It is a direct regulator of the LFY gene.
Term
Autonomous pathway
Definition
Flowering pathway that is independent of light and temperature; only basic nutrition is important. Allows day neutral plants to count and remember. For example tobacco plants produce 19 nodes before flowering.
Term
Class A genes
Definition
Genes that specify sepals.
Term
Class A & B genes
Definition
Genes that specify petals.
Term
Class B & C genes
Definition
Genes that specify stamens.
Term
Class C genes
Definition
Genes that specify carpels.
Term
Gene A missing
Definition
No sepals, no petals
Term
Gene B missing
Definition
No petals, no stamens.
Term
Gene C missing
Definition
No stamens, no carpels.
Term
Trends in floral specialization
Definition
(1)Separate floral parts grouped or fused (e.g. Primrose)
(2)Floral parts lost or reduced (e.g. Poinsettia)
Term
Primitive flowers
Definition
Radially symmetrical (Magnolia)
Term
Advanced flowers
Definition
Bilaterally symmetrical (orchid)
Term
Butterflies
Definition
Animals that visit flowers with flat landing platforms and long floral tubes filled with nectar.
Term
Moths
Definition
Animals that visit flowers that are white, heavily scented, and easy to locate at night.
Term
Birds
Definition
Animals that visit flowers with large amounts of nectar, often have red color, and are usually inconspicuous to insects.
Term
Outcrossing
Definition
Reproductive process in plants that is highly advantageous for plants and eukaryotic organisms. Provides genetic buffer for a changing environment with individuals with different adaptive value (fitness).
Term
Self-pollination
Definition
A type of pollination that is favored in stable environments; offspring are more uniform and probably better adapted to their environment.
Term
Evolutionary strategies that promote outcrossing
Definition
Dioecious, monoecious, self incompatibility.
Term
Dichogamous
Definition
Plants where both functional stamens and pistils are both found in the same flower, however, they may reach maturity at different times.
Term
Self incompatibility
Definition
Pollen and stigma of same individual recognize each other and pollen tube growth is blocked; controlled by alleles at the S locus.
Term
Gametophytic self incompatibility
Definition
Determined by the haploid pollen genotype. Pollen tubes always start to germinate.
Term
Sporophytic self incompatibility
Definition
Determined by the genotype of the diploid pollen parent. Pollen tube fails to germinate
Term
Embryo development
Definition
The growing pollen tube enters angiosperm embryo sac and releases two sperm cells. One sperm fertilizes central cell and initiates endosperm development. The other sperm fertilizes the egg to produce a zygote.
Term
Dermal
Definition
Protoderm
Term
Ground
Definition
Ground meristem
Term
Vascular Tissue
Definition
Procambrium
Term
SHOOTMERISTEMLESS (STM) gene
Definition
Gene needed for shoot formation
Term
HOBBIT gene
Definition
Gene needed for root formation.
Term
Embryogenesis
Definition
Process where angiosperms undergo three critical events: (1) Development of a food supply (2) Development of seed coat (3) Development of fruit surrounding seed.
Term
Germination
Definition
The emergence of the radicle (first root) from the seed coat; begins when a seed absorbs water and metabolism resumes. May requires additional environmental signals such as specific wavelength of light, high temperature, and stratification.
Term
Stratification
Definition
Period of low temperature exposure. It is required for some plants to undergo germination.
Term
Gibberellic acid
Definition
A hormone that signals the aleurone (outer endosperm layer) to produce a-amylase which breaks down the endosperm’s starch into sugars that are passed to embryo.
Term
Apomixis
Definition
Asexual development of a diploid cell in the ovule leading to the developing of an embryo that is identical to the mother; gain advantage of seed dispersal.
Term
Vegetative reproduction
Definition
A type of asexual reproduction where new plant individuals are cloned from parts of adults; comes in many and varied forms of modified stems, leaves, or roots.
Term
Protoplast
Definition
Plant cell with only the plasma membrane.
Term
Callus
Definition
Plant cells that have divided in a culture.
Term
Abiotic factors
Definition
Factors that threaten plants such as weather, fire, soil conditions.
Term
Biotic factors
Definition
Factors that threaten plants such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, animals, and other plants.
Term
Cutin
Definition
Part of the dermal tissue of above ground plants; it is a long chain of fatty acids linked together.
Term
Hyphal tip
Definition
Structure of haustoria, a type of fungus hyphae, that forms inside the host plant cell and draws nutrients from it.
Term
Mycorrhizal fungi
Definition
A fungi that forms a symbiotic relationship with plants because it provides access to soil phosphorous.
Term
Rhizobium
Definition
Bacteria that forms a symbiotic relationship with plants because it is nitrogen fixing therefore it provides access to nitrogen for plants.
Term
Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
Definition
A bacteria that forms a symbiotic relationship with plants; it lives around the root system and benefits from carbohydrates present in root exudates. It provides substances that support plant growth like gibberellins and limits the growth of pathogenic soil bacteria.
Term
Cyanogenic glycosides
Definition
Toxin produced when plant cells are damaged. They stop electron transportation (located inside the mitochondria), blocking herbivore respiration.
Term
Defensins
Definition
Toxins that kill herbivores, make them ill, or repel them with strong flavors or odors.
Term
Secondary metabolites
Definition
Metabolites that are produced by plants as toxins when metabolic pathways needed to sustain life are modified. Examples include alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, tannins, terpenes, terpenoids.
Term
Tannin
Definition
A secondary metabolite that disrupts the predator’s digestion by binding to proteins and inactiving them; composed of po
Term
Plant oils
Definition
Highly volatile lipids found in aromatic plants. Belongs to two groups: terpenes and terpenoids. Also known as essential oils or volatile oils; part of the mint family.
Term
Allelopathy
Definition
Phenomenom where plants poison other plants by secreting chemicals to block seed germination or inhibit growth of nearby plants. (Black walnut tree)
Term
Ricin
Definition
A plant alkaloid that is extremely poisonous. It is produced by the castor bean plant. A single seed can kill a small child. It functions as a ribosome-binding protein that inhibits translation.
Term
Phytoestrogen
Definition
A secondary metabolite derived from the soy plant that is beneficial to humans. Genistein is the most important one; it has been shown to lower the rate of prostate cancer.
Term
Taxol (terpenoid)
Definition
Secondary metabolite derived from the pacific yew tree that is beneficial to humans; It can help fight cancer.
Term
Quinine
Definition
Secondary metabolite of the Cinchona tree that is effective against malaria. It is not fully understood how it works; it facilitates the aggregation of free heme as a toxic heme that poisons the parasite.
Term
Acacia trees
Definition
Trees that has formed a symbiotic relationship with ants in which the ants protect the tree from harmful herbivores.
Term
Parasitoid wasp
Definition
Animal that is attracted to a volatile compound released by plants when it is being eaten by caterpillars. It lays eggs in the caterpillar which later kills it and saves the plant.
Term
Proteinase
Definition
Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of peptides into amino acids; needed to digest proteins. Inhibitors of this enzyme are released by plants as a response to when it is being chewed or injured.
Term
Jasmonic acid
Definition
Acid that turns on genes for proteinase inhibitors; systemin peptide signals the plants to release it.
Term
Hypersensitive response
Definition
Caused when a plant's R gene recognizes a pathogen. Leads to very rapid cell death around the site of attack. It seals off the wounded tissue to prevent the pathogen or pest from moving into rest of the plant.
Term
Phytoalexins
Definition
Antimicrobial chemical defense agents (usually alkaloids, terpenooids, or other secondary metabolism agent) activated by the hypersensitive response.
Term
Hyphae
Definition
Long slender filaments found in multicellular fungi. Some are continuously filled with cytoplasm and multiple nuclei, others are divided by septa. Allows rapid growth under good conditions
Term
Mycelium
Definition
Mass of connected hyphae; grows through and digests its substrate.
Term
Chitin
Definition
Composes cell wall of fungi.
Term
Dikaryotic
Definition
Two nuclei
Term
Heterokaryotic
Definition
Nuclei from genetically distinct individuals
Term
Homokaryotic
Definition
Nuclei are genetically identical to each another.
Term
Closed mitosis
Definition
Nuclear envelope does not break down and reform, instead, the spindle apparatus is formed within the nucleus; seen in fungi.
Term
Spores
Definition
The most common means of fertilization in fungi. May form from sexual or asexual processes. Most are dispersed by wind.
Term
Zoospores
Definition
Spores with flagella.
Term
Yeast
Definition
Unicellular ascomycetes. Most reproduce asexually by budding. They can ferment carbohydrates.
Term
Endophytic fungi
Definition
Fungi that lives in the intercellular spaces inside plants. Some are parasitic, some are commensalistic. Some fungi protect their hosts from herbivores by producing toxins.
Term
Lichens
Definition
Ascomycetes that forms a symbiotic association with a photosynthetic partner. Fungus grows on cell wall and does not enter in plasma.
Term
Arbuscular mycorrhizae
Definition
Fungus that forms a symbiotic relationship with plants. This particular types includes Globeromycetes.
Term
Ectomycorrhizae
Definition
Fungus that forms a symbiotic relationship with plants. This particular type use forest trees as hosts and is primarily basidiomycetes.
Term
Pneumocystis jiroveci
Definition
Yeast like fungus that causes pneumonia in AIDS.
Term
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
Definition
Fungus that causes chytridiomycosis; Responsible for the worldwide decline in amphibian populations.
Term
Radial symmetry
Definition
Body parts arranged around central axis. Can be dissected into two equal halves in any 2-D plane.
Term
Bilateral symmetry
Definition
Body has right and left halves that are mirror images. Only the sagittal plane bisects the animal into two equal halves.
Term
Parazoa
Definition
Sponges; the simplest animals. They lack defined tissues and organs.
Term
Eumetazoa
Definition
Animals that have well defined tissues and organs. They have irreversible differentiation for most cells.
Term
Ectoderm
Definition
One of the three germ layers produced during embryonic development. Includes the body coverings and nervous system.
Term
Mesoderm
Definition
One of the three germ layers that forms during embryonic development. Includes skeletons and muscles (heart)
Term
Endoderm
Definition
One of the three germ layers that develops during embryonic development. Includes most organs and intestines.
Term
Body cavity
Definition
Space surrounded by the mesoderm tissue. Not the digestive tube.
Term
Acoelomates
Definition
Animals with no body cavity such as flat worms. Their organs are in direct contact with mesodermal tissue.
Term
Pseudocoelomates
Definition
Animals with body cavity between mesoderm and endoderm. Body cavity develops between mesoderm and endoderm.
Term
Coelomates
Definition
Animals with their cavity entirely within the mesoderm. Found in most bilateral animals.
Term
Blastula
Definition
Structure that is produced by mitotic cell division of the egg in bilaterian animals. It forms a ball of cells.
Term
Gastrula
Definition
Structure formed when the blastula folds inward to form a two layer thick ball. Includes blastospore, archenteron and mesoderm.
Term
Protosomes
Definition
Animals that develop the mouth first from or near the blastospore. Spiral cleavage. Determinate development. Coelom forms early
Term
Deuterostomes
Definition
Animals that develop the anus first from the blastopore. Mouth develops later from another region of the embryo. Includes echinoderms, chordate. Radial cleavage. Indeterminate development. Coelom forms late.
Term
Metazoans
Definition
Multicellular animals; divided into parazoa and eumetazoa.
Term
Diploblastic
Definition
Eumetatzoans that have blastula in two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm). Includes Cnidaria and Ctenophora.
Term
Triploblastic
Definition
Eumetazoans that have blastula with three germ layers; complex animals. Protosomes and deuterostomes.
Term
Ostia
Definition
Part of the outer epithelium (first layer) in ponifera. It is a pore where water comes through.
Term
Osculum
Definition
Part of the outer epithelium (first layer) in Ponifera. It is a large opening where water exits.
Term
Mesohyl
Definition
The second layer in Ponifera that includes the middle layer (gelatenous protein matrix), spicules (needles of calcium carbonate) and spongin (reinforcing protein fibers).
Term
Choanocytes
Definition
The third layer in Ponifera. They are flagellated collar cells that face the internal cavity. They engulf and digest food from passing water. May transform into sperm cells.
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