Term
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Definition
| microscopic living organisms such as bacteria protists many fungi, and viruses, usually not considered to be alive..mostly harmless , even some beneficial |
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Term
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Definition
greek word meaning "to produce disease"
they are reproducing and seeking hosts |
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Term
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Definition
| these barriers prevent most disease causing microbes from entering the body |
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Term
| nonspecific internal defenses |
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Definition
| if the external barriers are breached, a variety of nonspecific internal defenses, collectively called the innate immune response swing into action |
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Term
| specific internal defensives |
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Definition
| the final line of defense is the adaptive immune response in which immune cells selectively destroy the specific invading toxin or microbe and then "remember the invader" allowing a faster response if it reappears in the future |
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Term
| nonspecific immune response |
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Definition
| WBC (leukocytes) such as neutrophils (engulfs invading microbes), natural killer cells (destruction of virus infected cells) |
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Term
| specific adaptive immune response |
|
Definition
involves B cells (also memory B cells, and Plasma cells) and T cells (also cytotoxic T cells which destroy cancerous cells, helper T cells which help both B and T cells, memory T cells, and regulatory T cells that suppress immune attack against body’s own cells)
Antigens |
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Term
| major histocompatibility complex mhc |
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Definition
set of proteins that differ from species to species, and in fact from individual to individual within a species.
most cancerous cells have missing or altered mhc proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| the inflammatory response begins when damaged cells release chemicals that cause certain cells in the connective tissue, mast cells, release histamine. the inflammatory response causes tissues to become red swollen and painful |
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Term
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Definition
| complex molecules, they are antibody generating molecules, they provoke an immune response including the production of antibodies |
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Term
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Definition
| proteins produced by B cells and their offspring, help the immune system to recognize invading microbes and destroy them |
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Term
| innate immune response(protection by white blood cells) |
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Definition
| the body has a standing army of white blood cells, or leukocytes many of which are specialized to attack and destroy invading cells or the bodys own cells if they have been infected by viruses |
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Term
| innate immune response (the inflammatory response) |
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Definition
| a wound, with its combination of tissue damage and invading microbes, provokes an inflammatory response, which recruits leukocytes to the site of injury and walls off the injured are, isolating the infected tissue from the rest of the body |
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Term
| innate immune response (fever) |
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Definition
| if a population of microbes succeeds in establishing a major infection, the body may produce a fever, which both slows down microbial reproduction and enhances the bodys own fighting abilities |
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Term
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Definition
| (contains lymph nodes houses lymphocytes) spleen (organ that filters blood exposing it to WBC thus killing microbes) tonsils |
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Term
| five major types of antibodies |
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Definition
IgD, IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE
IgG-most common
IgE-associated with allergic reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| every t cell produces t cell receptors that differ from those of all other t cells. antibodies/ T cell receptors play a crucial role in helping to destroy invading microbes |
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Term
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Definition
-cannot design and build antibodies and t cell receptors that fit particular invading antigens
-randomly synthesize millions of different antibodies and t cell receptors
the plus of having a million unique immune cells is that almost any invader will provoke an adaptive immune response |
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Term
| clonal selection in b cells |
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Definition
| when a microbe enters the body the antibodies on a few b cells can bind to antigens on the invader, this binding causes the b cells to multiply rapidly. the antigens select which be cells will multiply |
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Term
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Definition
| daughter cells of B cells, can synthesize many antibodies into blood stream to attach same antigen |
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Term
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Definition
they help combat infection by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria, fungi, or protists
-antibiotics are potent agents of natural selection, favoring the survival and reproduction of microbes that can withstand their effects.
eventually antibiotics become ineffective in treating diseases
not useful against viruses-target metabolic processes that viruses do not posess |
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Term
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Definition
| stimulates an immune response by exposing a person to antigens produced by a pathogen. vaccines often consist of weakened or killed microbes (that cant cause disease)or some of the pathogens antigens. When the body is exposed to a weakened pathogen or its antigens it produces an army of memory cells that confer immunity against living dangerous microbes of the same type |
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Term
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Definition
| which then immune system attacks a component of ones own body |
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Term
| direct communication (cells) |
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Definition
chemical messengers - ions, small molecules
mechanism of transition- direct movement through gap junctions linking the cytoplasm of adjacent cells |
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Term
|
Definition
chemical messengers: neurotransmitters
mechanism of transmission: diffusion from a neuron across a narrow space (synaptic cleft) to an adjacent cell |
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Term
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Definition
chemical messengers: local hormones
mechanism of transmission: diffusion through the interstitial fluid to nearby cells |
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Term
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Definition
carried in the bloodstream to nearby or distant cells
mechanism of transmission- carried in the bloodstream to nearby or distant cells |
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Term
| receptors/hormone binding **** |
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Definition
| receptors are specialized proteins located either on the surface of , or inside, the receiving cells. when a messenger binds to a receptor, nthe receiving cell responds in a way that is determined by the messenger, the receptor, and the type of cell. these responses can be varied as muscle contraction, secretion of milk in lactating women, or active transport of salt by cells in the kidney |
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Term
| peptide and amino acid derived hormones |
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Definition
peptide and amino acid derived hormones usually bind to cell receptors on surfaces on target cells
-peptide ( chains of amino acids)
amino ( composed of one or two modified amino acids) |
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Term
|
Definition
usually bind to cell receptors inside target cells
-synthesized from cholesterol |
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Term
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Definition
an response to a change that tends to counteract the change and restore the system to its original condition
ex. ADH, glucose/insulin/glucagon |
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Term
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Definition
-occurs in childbirth
- contractions of uterus push babys head against cervix causing cervix to stretch |
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Term
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Definition
1- usually begins in childhood and is caused by a malfunctioning immune system that destroys the insulin producing islet cells
-insulin replacement therapy profoundly improves the health of people with type 1 |
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Term
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Definition
usually begins in adulthood and is most commonly associated with obesity and lack of exercise
-in early stages people produce adequate amounts of insulin but their bodies are insulin resistant |
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Term
| hypothalamus posterior pituitary |
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Definition
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Term
| hypothalamus anterior pituitary |
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Definition
| releasing or inhibiting hormones |
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Term
| fsh ( follicule stimulating hormone ) and lh ( luteinizing hormone) |
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Definition
| stimulates the production of sperm and testosterone in the testes of males and the production of eggs, estrogen, and progesterone in the ovaries of females. |
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Term
| thyroid stimulating hormone (tsh) |
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Definition
| stimulates the thyroid gland to release its hormones |
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Term
| adrenocortico-tropic hormone (acth) |
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Definition
| causes the release of the hormone cortisol from the adrenal cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| acts on nearly all the bodys cells by increasing protein synthesis promoting the use of fats for energy and regulating carbohydrate metabolism, during childhood it stimulates bone growth |
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Term
| most abundant glucocorticoid |
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Definition
| cortisol, released by adrenal cortex. Cortisol released in response to stress/anxiety |
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Term
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Definition
| glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, testosterone |
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Term
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Definition
| epinephrine and norepinephrine- they prepare the body for emergency action. they increase heart and respiratory rates, increase blood pressure, cause glucose levels to rise, and direct blood away from the digestive tract and toward the brain and muscles. they also cause the air passages to the lungs to expand allowing larger volumes of air to enter and leave the lungs |
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Term
| most important mineralocorticoid is |
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Definition
| aldosterone (helps control sodium levels) |
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Term
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Definition
| melatonin- an amino acid derivative, used to regulate sleep cycle |
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Term
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Definition
receives information from the internal or external environment from other neurons
transmits info to other cells such as other neurons or the cells of muscles or glands |
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Term
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Definition
| receive signals from other neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| integrates signals; coordinates the neurons metabolic activities |
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Term
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Definition
| conducts the action potential |
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Term
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Definition
| transmit signals to other neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| assist neuronal function by providing nutrients, regulating the composition of the interstitial fluid that bathes the neurons, modulating communication among neurons, and speeding up the movement of electrical signals within neurons |
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Term
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Definition
1) receives info from the internal or external environment from other neurons
2) process this information often along with information from other sources, and produce an electrical signal
3) conduct an electrical signal, sometimes for a considerable distance, to a junction where it meets another cell.
4) transmit info to other cells, such as neurons or the cells of muscles or glands |
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Term
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Definition
| large rapid electrical signal that is produced when the sum of electrical signals received from dendrites is positive |
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Term
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Definition
is always negative inside the cello ranging from about -40 to -90 millivolts
if the potential becomes sufficiently less negative, it reaches a level called threshold and triggers an action potential |
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Term
| what crosses synaptic terminal |
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Definition
| the plasma membranes of axons are specialized to conduct action potentials from a neurons cell body to the axons synaptic terminals |
|
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Term
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Definition
| fatty insulation that speeds up the conduction of action potentials. myelin is formed by glial cells that wrap themselves around the axon. |
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Term
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Definition
| depending on which channels are associated with a particular receptor, ions may move through the channels causing this brief change in voltage |
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Term
| inhibitory postsynaptic potential |
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Definition
| if the postsynaptic neuron becomes more negative its resting potention moves farther away from this threshold. this change in voltage is called (inhib) bc it inhibits the postsynaptic neuron making it less likely to fire an action potential. |
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Term
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Definition
| respond to a stimulus, either internal or external to the body |
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Term
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Definition
| receive signals from sensory neurons, hormones, neurons that store memories, and many other sources |
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Term
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Definition
| receive instructions from sensory neurons or interneurons and activate muscles or glands |
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Term
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Definition
| usually muscles or glands, perform the response directed by the nervous system |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| central nervous system (cns) |
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Definition
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Term
| peripheral nervous system (pnms) |
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Definition
motory neurons
sensory neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| voluntary , skeletal muscles |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system |
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Definition
| the neurons in this division release the neurotransmitter norepinephrine onto their target organs preparing the body for stressful or energetic activity such as fighting escaping or taking an exam |
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Term
| parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous system |
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Definition
| the neurons of this division release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine onto their target organs.( leisure, rest activities) under this control the digestive tract becomes active, the heart rate slows and air passages in the lungs constrict bc the body requires less blood flow and less oxygen |
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Term
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Definition
| protects the brain from damaging chemicals in the blood stream, selectively transports needed material into the brain while keeping many dangerous substances out |
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Term
| 3 major parts of the brain |
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Definition
| hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain |
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Term
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Definition
| crucial for coordinating movements. it receives info from both command centers in the forebrain that control movement from position centers in the muscles and joints. then it guides smooth accurate motions and body position. also involved in motor learning |
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Term
| some functions of cerebrum |
|
Definition
2 hemispheres with 4 lobes,
amygdala- produces sensations of fear, pleasure, or sexual arousal when stimulated
hippocampus- long term memory |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body |
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Term
|
Definition
| the cortexes in each hemisphere communicate with each other through a large band of axons calls the corpus callosum |
|
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Term
| all sensory perception begins with |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
stimuli-heat, cold
sensory cell type- free nerve ending
location- skin,brain |
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Term
|
Definition
stimuli- vibration, motion, gravity
sensory cell type- hair cell
location- inner ear
stimuli- vibration, pressure, touch
sensory cell type-free nerve endings and endings surrounded by accessory structures
location-skin
stimuli- stretch
sensory cell type-specialized nerve endings in muscles or joints
location- muscles, tendons |
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|
Term
|
Definition
stimuli-light
sensory cell type- rod, cone
location- retina of the eye |
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Term
|
Definition
stimuli- odor (airborne molecules)
sensory cell type- olfactory receptor
location- nasal cavity
stimuli taste (waterborne molecules)
sensory cell type- taste receptor
location- tongue and oral cavity |
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Term
|
Definition
stimuli-chemicals released by tissue injury; extreme heat or cold; excessive stretch; acid
sensory cell type-free nerve ending
location- widespread in the body |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| our nears convert the resulting sound waves into electrical signals bait our brains interpret as the direction, pitch, and loudness of sound |
|
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Term
| outer ear (pinna and auditory canal) |
|
Definition
the pinna is a flap of skin covered cartilage attached to the surface of the head, and it collects sound waves,
the auditory canal conducts sound waves from the pinna to the middle ear |
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Term
|
Definition
tympanic membrane-eardrum
3 tiny bones, hammer (malleus) anvil(incus) stirrup (stapes
and the auditory tube |
|
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Term
|
Definition
cochlea-fluid, hollow bones of the inner ear form a spiral shaped tube called the cochlea
oval window- a flexible membrane covering the opening at the beginning of the cochlea
round membrane-covers an opening at the far end of the cochlea |
|
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Term
| how do we detect gravity and movement |
|
Definition
| structures in the inner ear called vestibular apparatus detect gravity and the orientation and movement of the head |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| vision begins with cells called photoreceptors. these cells contain photopigments, receptor molecules that change shape when they absorb light. this shape change sets off chemical reactions inside the photoreceptors that result in receptor potentials |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| tough connective layer that is visible as the white of the eye and is continuous with the transparent cornea |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| light enters the eye through the cornea, focusing begins here |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| chamber filled with watery fluid that provides nourishment for the cells of both the lens and the cornea |
|
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Term
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Definition
| circular opening in the center of the colored iris |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| structure composed of transparent proteins shaped like a flattened sphere, responsible for final sharp focusing |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| clear jelly like substance that helps maintain the shape of the eyeball |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| light is converted into action potentials that are conducted to the brain |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| behind the retina, choroids rich blood supply helps nourish cells of the retina |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| light coming from an object is focused most sharply on a small area of the retina called the fovea. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| this is where the optic nerve is located. lacks photoreceptors so images focused there cant be seen |
|
|
Term
| where are the photoreceptors located |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| located at the rear of the retina. they contain membranes packed with photopigment molecules. photoreception begins when the photopigments absorb light which triggers chemical reactions that produce receptor potentials in the photoreceptor cells |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| taste receptors vs taste buds |
|
Definition
taste buds- human tongue has about 5,000 . embedded in small bumps calls papilla. they contain a cluster of cells including supporting cells stem cells and taste receptor cells
the taste receptor cells bear microvilli that protrude into the taste pore |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| sour salty sweet bitter and unami (Japanese word translated as delicious) |
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Term
|
Definition
| skeletal, smooth, involuntary |
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|
Term
| striped or striated appearance of skeletal muscle |
|
Definition
| it moves the skeleton appearing striated(striped) under a microscope |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| individual muscle cells grouped into bundles by further coverings of connective tissue |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| individual muscle fibers contain may parallel cylinders called myofibrils |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| each myofibril is surrounded by a specialized type of endoplasmic reticulum called the sarcoplasmic reticulum |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the plasma membrane that surrounds each muscle fiber forms tubes that tunnel deep inside the cell at regular intervals. they encircle the myofibrils running between and closely attached to, segments of the SR |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| repeating subunits in each myofibril aligned end to end along the length of the myofibril and connected to one another by protein discs called z lines |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| within eachn sarcomere lies a precise arrangement of think and thick protein filaments. each thing filament is anchored to a z line at one end. suspended between the thin filaments are thick filaments. the regular arrangement of the filaments gives skeletal muscle fiber its striped appearance |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| regulates contraction, lies atop the actin |
|
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Term
| atp in muscle contraction |
|
Definition
| atp provides the energy for muscle contraction |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the cell bodies of most motor neurons are in the spinal cord; their axons exit the cord in spinal nerves and contact muscle fibers at specialized synapses called (nj) |
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Term
|
Definition
different forms of myosin. slow twitch fibers contract with less power than fast twitch fibers but they can contract for a very long time. slow twitch are thin contain lots of mitochondira and have a plentiful blood supply that provides oxygen for atp production by cellular respiration
resists fatigue the most
also have high levels of myoglobin |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| large diameter and many myofibrils. they contracts with a greater force but have smaller blood supply and amounts of myoglobin |
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Term
|
Definition
found in the heart
involuntary |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| cardiac muscle fibers are connected to one another by intercalated discs, hold them firmly together |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the ability to contract spontaneously is particularly well developed in the specialized cardiac muscle fibers of the hearts natural pacemaker. |
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Term
|
Definition
involuntary
surrounds blood vessels and most hollow organs including uterus bladder and digestive tract
smooth muscle fibers are directly connected to one another by gap junctions allowing cells to contract in synchrony. contraction of smooth muscles can be stimulated by stretch, hormones, signals from the autonomic nervous system, or by combos of these stimuli |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| structure that supports the body.. see page 780 ****** |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| includes the bones of the head( head) vertebral column and rib cage |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| includes the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the appendages attached to them ( forelimbs and hind limbs) |
|
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Term
| what bones make up are arm forearm wrist hand leg ankle foot |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| dense and strong and provides attachments site for muscle |
|
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Term
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Definition
| consists of an open network of bony fibers. it is porous lightweight and rich in blood vessels. bone marrow is found here |
|
|
Term
| three types of bone cells |
|
Definition
-osteoclasts( bone dissolving cells)
-osteoblasts ( bone forming cells)
-osteocytes ( mature bone cells) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| each year 5 to 10 percent of all the bone in ur body breaks down and is replaced through the coordinated activities of the osteoclasts , and osteoblasts . this process allows the skeleton to alter its shape in response to the demands placed on it |
|
|
Term
| how do phagocytic cells and osteoclasts help in damaged bone |
|
Definition
| phagocytic cells from the blood and osteoclasts from the damaged bone ingest cellular debris and dissolve bone fragments |
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Term
|
Definition
located in elbows, knees and fingers
move only in two dimensions |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| hip and shoulder, the round end of one bone fits into a hollow depression in another. allow movement in several directions. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a slow decline bone density causing their bones to be vulnerable to fractures and deformities |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| where blood cells form found in cavities of spongy bone |
|
|
Term
| taste receptors vs taste buds |
|
Definition
taste buds- human tongue has about 5,000 . embedded in small bumps calls papilla. they contain a cluster of cells including supporting cells stem cells and taste receptor cells
the taste receptor cells bear microvilli that protrude into the taste pore |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sour salty sweet bitter and unami (Japanese word translated as delicious) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| skeletal, smooth, involuntary |
|
|
Term
| striped or striated appearance of skeletal muscle |
|
Definition
| it moves the skeleton appearing striated(striped) under a microscope |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individual muscle cells grouped into bundles by further coverings of connective tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individual muscle fibers contain may parallel cylinders called myofibrils |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| each myofibril is surrounded by a specialized type of endoplasmic reticulum called the sarcoplasmic reticulum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the plasma membrane that surrounds each muscle fiber forms tubes that tunnel deep inside the cell at regular intervals. they encircle the myofibrils running between and closely attached to, segments of the SR |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| repeating subunits in each myofibril aligned end to end along the length of the myofibril and connected to one another by protein discs called z lines |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| within eachn sarcomere lies a precise arrangement of think and thick protein filaments. each thing filament is anchored to a z line at one end. suspended between the thin filaments are thick filaments. the regular arrangement of the filaments gives skeletal muscle fiber its striped appearance |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a single animal produces offspring |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| organs called gonads produce sperm or eggs and then are fertilized from separate parents. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the ability to grow lost body parts |
|
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Term
|
Definition
a miniature version of the adult grows directly on the body of the adult
ex corals anemones and hydra |
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Term
|
Definition
| process in which egg cells develop into offspring without being fertilized |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| female (ovary; produces eggs) male (testis; produces sperm) |
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Term
| most important function of reproduction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in some animals and many snails single individuals produce both sperm and eggs. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| sperm and egg unite outside bodies of their parents, ex sperm and eggs are typically released into water a process called spawning and the sperm swim to reach the eggs |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| sperm are placed within the females moist reproductive tract where here eggs are fertilized . |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| release of mature egg cell from the ovary of the female must occur about the same time that sperm are deposited into the females reproductive tract |
|
|
Term
| courtship displays in organisms |
|
Definition
| most mammals use courtship displays to synchronize mating with ovulation. |
|
|
Term
| sexual maturation in humans |
|
Definition
| puberty- a stage of development characterized by rapid growth and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics. girls average (9-13) boys ( year or two later ) |
|
|
Term
| gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) |
|
Definition
| stimulates anterior pituitary to produce LH and FSH |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| male/ female reproductive system ***** |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| only flagellated cell in the human body |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| chorionic gonadotropin (CG) |
|
Definition
| the embryo secretes this LH hormone travels into the bloodstream to the ovary where it functions to keep the corpus luteum alive |
|
|
Term
| what hormone is detected to determine pregnancy |
|
Definition
| hCG human chorionic gonadotropin |
|
|
Term
| how long do sperm live in female reproductive tract |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| form a barrier between the sperm and the egg |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a second jelly like barriew that lies between the corona radiate and the egg |
|
|
Term
| what do enzymes from acrosome do |
|
Definition
| each sperm releases enzymes from acrosome,. these enzymes weaken both the corona radiata and the zona pellucida allowing the sperm to wiggle through to the egg |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| most foolproof method of contraception in which pathways through which sperm or eggs must travel are blocked or cut |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
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Definition
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