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| Australopithecus africanus (Raymond Dart discoverer |
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| – large brain, primitive jaw and teeth. Why it was accepted (conformity to preconceptions about human evolution, nationalism). |
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| (bipedalism). Robert Broom. |
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| Scenarios for the origin of hominids, and trends in hominid early hominid evolution |
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| environmental change, subsistence change, pair-bonding, maternal carrying, "radiator" theory) |
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| exploitation of open habitats. |
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| Many parts of DNA mutate at constant rates with no selection (“neutral” mutations). If you can calibrate the rate of change (against the fossil record of a well-known group of organisms), you can predict how much time has elapsed since two species shared a common ancestor. |
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| Ardipithecus ramidus (east Africa): |
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| 4.4 million years old, large canine teeth (but still small compared to great ape), thin molar enamel, partly splayed big toe, foramen magnum moved forward, bipedal. |
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| Australopithecus anamensis (east Africa |
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| 4.1 – 3.9 million years, large canine teeth, thick molar tooth enamel, bipedal. |
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| Australopithecus afarensis (east Africa |
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| 3.9 – 3.0 million years, abundant remains, projecting (prognathic) face, large canines, small brain (310 – 400 cc), clearly bipedal but not asefficient as today, curved fingers and toes (also climbed trees), long arms. |
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| Australopithecus africanus (South Africa |
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| 3.0 – 2.5 million years, Taung child was first discovery, more rounded skull than A. afarensis, brain size 428 – 510 cc, smaller canines, skeleton similar to A. afarensis. |
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| Paranthropus aethiopicus (East Africa): |
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| 2.5 – 2.3 million years, prognathic face, small brain (about 410 cc), very large molar teeth, but also large incisors, strong sagittal crest, "dished"face, very large face, hard, tough food objects. |
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| Paranthropus boisei (East Africa): |
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| 2.4 – 1.3 million years, dished face, sagittal crest, very strong sexual dimorphism, visor-like cheek bones, brain size 500 – 530 cc, very small incisors, canines, huge molar teeth, large jaws, hard and tough objects, skeleton like A. afarensis. |
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| Paranthropus robustus (South Africa): |
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| 1.8 – 1.5 million years, similar to A. boisei, but not quite as robust – possible southern variant. |
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| EARLY HOMO AND THE ORIGINS OF MATERIAL CULTURE |
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| : brain enlargement, acquisition of culture, reduction in emphasis on chewing for food preparation, improvement of bipedal gait. Characters: increased cranial vault thickness, reduced post-orbital constriction, increased cranial vault height, more anteriorly situated foramen magnum, reduced facial prognathism, narrow tooth crowns, reduced length of molar toothrow. Note that all of these characters have to do with |
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| 1) increasing brain size, 2) reduction in size of the face, and 3) bipedality. |
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| smaller brain, earlier, 2-rooted premolars, occipital enlargement |
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| larger brain, later, weak/no supraorbital torus, wide face, 3-rooted premolars, hindfoot and leg more modern looking than H. habilis). |
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| ). East and South Africa. 2.1 – 1.6 million years, brain size 513 – 750 cc. Sharp nasal margins, reduced post-orbital constriction, thin brow ridges, wide cranial base, reduced facial prognathism, strong opposable thumb, well developed arches on feet (no flat feet!), long upper limb. |
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| . First proposed is "osteodontokeratic" culture from South Africa, but probably just hyena remains. First culture is "Olduwan" because it was first found in Olduvai gorge. Associated with earliest Homo |
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| Knock sharp flakes off core – instant disposable pen-knife! Scavenging hypothesis versus hunting. Cut marks on bone prove flakes used to cut meat. |
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| know the “home-base”, “scavenging”, and “cache” hypotheses. |
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| First discovered in Java – solo river – by Dubois: "Pithecanthropus" erectus. Found in China: Zhoukoudian cave famous locality for "Sinanthropus" erectus. Originals lost in WW II – more fossils found after 1982. about 2.0 million to about 0.7 million years. Originated in Africa, spread throughout Old World. |
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| WT 15000 ("Nariokotome skeleton") is almost complete skeleton. |
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| Large brain (average 860 cc in Indonesia, 1040 in Chinese specimens – 900 cc for all specimens combined), but brain size relative to body size is same as in H. habilis! Prominent brow ridges, large nose, angle occipital region with bun, low cranial vault, sagittal "keel", bell-shaped cranium, no chin, large jaws and teeth |
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| femur with large head, short neck (opposite australopithecines), narrow vertebral canal in thorax (lack of speech?), 6 lumbar vertebrae, narrow pelvis (altrical young?), average height 5 foot 6 inches, average weight about 128 lbs – tall and thin (Bergman's and Allen's rules), limb proportions same as in modern humans, thick bones (heavy "loading"). |
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| Some (minority of scientists) recognize H. erectus for Asian specimens, H. ergaster for African specimens. Most recognize a single species (as we do in this course) African specimens more "primitive", earlier – Asian specimens more "derived", later. |
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| Tools: Acheulian tool culture – hand axes. No hand axes in china, but progressive elaboration and sophistication of tools over time. Earliest hand axes 1.4 million years old. Tools tend to be worked in both sides. Acheulian lasts until about 200,000 years ago – replaced by "middle stone age." |
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NEANDERTALS AND OTERH ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS.
"Archaic Homo" also called Homo heidelbergensis: |
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| about 700,000 to about 130,000 years ago. Highly variable, transitional species from Africa, Asia, Europe. Homo erectus-like features: large brow ridges, broad cranial base, thick cranial walls, large, chinless jaw with large teeth. Homo sapiens-like features: later in time, larger brain (> 1000, cc), rounded occipital, expanded parietal bones, expanded frontal bones (more of a forehead), arched brow-ridges (not flat). |
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| Named by King, 1863 Homo neanderthalensis. Many good specimens. Europe, middle east, Russia 130,000 to about 30,000 years ago. First description was of La Chapelle aux Saints – arthritic old man, gave impression of stooped, hairy violent brute. Not true. |
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| Long, thin-walled brain case, average brain size 1520 cc (average in modern humans is 1350 cc), low forehead, arched brow ridges, prognathic face with no "canine fossa", thus forming a smooth contoured cheek bone, large nasal aperture (big nose!), large molar teeth, thick robust skeleton – short and stocky – pelvis larger (big headed babies). Cold adapted species. |
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| Levallois technique, invented by H. heidelbergensis, Mousterian stone culture characteristic of neandertals. Neandertals: burial of dead, wooden spears, sophisticated tool package. But…no bone tools, no representational art.First good record of fire for H. heidelbergensis in central Europe. |
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| ANATOMICALLY MODERN HOMO SAPIENS |
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| Models for modern human origins: 1) multiregional evolution, 2) out-of-Africa (replacement), 3) Afro-European sapiens model (partial replacement). |
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| transitional fossils in Europe between neandertals and modern H. sapiens, retention of some "erectus-like" traits in Asian populations, Kow-swamp skull in Australia has big brow ridges, retention of some neandertal-like traits in Europeans. |
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| Out-of-Africa: patterns of genetic diversity (greatest in Africa), low y-chromosome diversity, Asian, European and Native American genetic similarity, mitochondrial DNA "clock", low overall variation in humanity |
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| 70,000 + year old art in South Africa, anatomically modern human fossils in South Africa, presence of H. sapiens and neandertals in middle east, neandertal DNA very different from all modern humans. |
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| THE PEOPLING OF THE EARTH AND THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC CULTURE. |
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| Five “cultural” divisions recognized (from oldest to youngest): Chatelperronian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, Magdalenian. |
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| Technology and art in upper Paleolithic of Europe. Bone, ivory tools, in addition to sophisticated stone tools. Pressure flaking, punch flake technique for standardized blades, atlatl, artistically crafted stone tools, artistic decoration of tools, objects, cave art, "Venus" figurines. Art reaches climax during "Magdalenian." |
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| sophisticated stone tool technology, elaborate rock art. Australia – ground stone axe heads, mortars and pestals suggest semi-sedentary life-style, lots of cave art, ornaments etc. Asia – same thing for tools, sophisticated tools, bone, horn antler etc., bone needles (=clothing!), many ornamental objects, including beads, perforated shells. |
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| Ritual burials evident everywhere |
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| not in Neandertals or early H. sapiens – only comes later. Origin of language: (1) single origins model – language confers success on modern humans, leading to replacement, (2) brain size and cortical re-organization – invoke earlier origin of language linked to tool making, handedness. Difficult to tell who is right – probably both? |
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