mRNA

tRNA

messenger RNA-carries DNA's message

transfer RNA-"translator" reads mRNA and brings Amino Acid

ribosomal RNA-makes up a ribosome we will see all 3 kinds in gene expression=protein synthesis=transcription/translation=gene to protein

DNA duplicates/replicates during Interphase, In chromatin form before it condenses into chromosomes.

• DNA replication begins at multiple origins of replication-reduce amount of time
• creates replication bubbles that proceed in both directions.-where new daughter strands are formed-bubbles will eventually fuse
• entire DNA molecule needs to replicate before cell division (mitosis)

Steps of Replication

1. DNA Helicase-unzips parent strands of nucleic acids-break H bonds between N. bases
2. Other enzymes lightly bind to each parent strand to keep them apart
3. DNA Polymerase adds free nucleotides to each parent strand-complementary base pairs-free nucleotides have 3 phosphates attached (2 cleaved off for an energy source to drive endergonic/anabolic Rxn.
4. DNA ligase-forms covalent bonds between the new nucleotides of daughter strand
5. End Result-2 DNA molecules, 1 daughter, 1 parent

DNA gene is rewritten into RNA language.

DNA molecule is a template to make mRNA

Only occurs in Nucleus

Same complementary base pair rules

Steps of Transcription

1. RNA Polymerase attaches to DNA at beginning of gene (each gene contains a Promoter-nucleic sequence that denotes the beginning of a gene)
2. RNA Polymerase unzips parent strands of DNA
3. RNA Polymerase matches new free nucleotides to the DNA strand -eventually creating new mRNA
4. RNA Polymerase detaches from DNA when it reaches terminator (sequence marks end of gene)
5. End Result: mRNA

1. mRNA binds to the Ribosome
2. tRNA binds to its Anticodon to the mRNA's codon...but also binds to Ribosome
3. Growing chain of A.A.'s detach from its tRNA to jump on to the the "new" A.A.
4. Translation ends when stop codon is reached on mRNA
5. End Result:  chain of A.A. (peptide, polypeptide, protein)

base pair substitution, replacement of one nucleotide for another (occurs in transcription).

Transfer RNA

One end it has an anticodon that binds to mRNA's codon, via base pair rules.

On other end it contains appropriate A.A. that the mRNA's codon is ordering.

• specialization as cells in their structure and secreation
• caused by gene regulation 

creates a new individual that is identical to "parent"

does NOT produce a new individual.

it does produce tissues, organs, new cells, 

1. ES cells taken from embryo
2. Nuclei are removed from embryo
3. insert Nuclei from paitent
4. New embryo is placed in specific transcription factors to create a specialized cells, tissues, organ-genetically identical to paitent
5. new organ, tissue is surgically placed in paitent
6. advantages--avoids donor waiting list, low risk of rejection

the entire DNA sequence of a species.

Humans have a 99.9% similar genome.

a mix of DNA from 2 different sources.

chromosomal DNA-contains gene essential of survival.

plasmid DNA-Not essential for survival, can replicate independent of rest of cell, can insert a new gene into plasmid.

Recombinant organism and sometimes transgenic organisms.  Organic foods do NOT allow GMO's.

• resistance to unliving conditions (frost, draught, saline, soils)
• Higher yield
• Disease resistance
• require less fertilizer, less water
• bigger, tastier, long-lasting
• more nutritional value
• longer shelf life

• decrease genetic diversity
• ownership/big business
• possible cross pollution with wild species
• unpredictable health risks
• allergic reactions
• increased pathogen resistance
• unpredictable ecological risks

1. Healthy gene taken from donor
2. gene inserted into virus
3. virus inserts gene into paitent
4. Patient is now Recombinant Organism--GMO