Term
|
Definition
Functions:
barrier to mechanical disturbance, microbes, & fluid loss; absorption and secretion
Structure :
sheets of tightly packed cells; closely joined; sometimes linked by tight junctions
Types: simple cuboidal
stratified columnar squamous
Examples: - Skin
- Lining of almost all hollow tubes (intestines, esophagus, stomach)
- Glands (thyroid, pancreas parotid)
- Alveoli in lungs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Functions:
Bind and support = connect!
Structure :
Sparse population of cells embedded in extracellular matrix. Matrix is a web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation that
can be liquid, jelly, or solid.
Types:
Loose connective Adipose
Fibrous connective
Cartilage Bone Blood
Examples:
- Blood
- Cartilage - Bone
- Loose connective Tissue
- Fat tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Functions:
Locomotion/movement, heat production
Structure :
Long cells called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers are composed of contracting subunits called myofibrils.
Types:Skeletal – Voluntary (striated) Smooth – Involuntary (no striations) Cardiac – Like skeletal (striated) but
Involuntary & has intercalated discs
Examples:
- Skeletal: all major muscle groups
- smooth: intestines, pupil
- cardiac: heart! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Nervous Tissue Functions:
Transmit information between cells, sense stimuli, coordinate activity, stimulate glands, many more
Structure :
Neurons composed of a cell body with nucleus, tendril-like projections called dendrites, and axons Dendrites and axons carry information to
and from cell body.
Examples:
- Brain !
- Spinal cord - optic nerve
- peripheral nerves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Active maintenance of steady state conditions though physiological or behavioral feedback loops (optimum stable conditions)
Variables regulated through homeostasis:
Body temperature (37oC)
PH of blood (7.4)
Hormone levels
Osmolarity of body fluids
Blood sugar (90mg/100mL blood)
(when this is not working = diabetes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Very different from external environment; bathes all the cells in the body; 11 liters in human body |
|
|
Term
| Homeostasis ≠ Equilibrium |
|
Definition
| Homeostasic is the active maintenance of a set point whereas equilibrium is a state where there is no net change in rate of exchange |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
maintain same fluid composition/status
as environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Internal fluid composition/status is different from environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What controls Homeostasis? |
|
Definition
Homeostatic control mechanism
Receptor – detects change
Control center – processes information and
directs a response to effector
Effector – carries out response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A homeostatic control mechanism --> A change in the variable being monitored triggers the control mechanism to counteract further change in the same direction. Examples: body temp blood glucose, osmolarity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the flow of energy through an animal. It limits growth, behavior, influences basic ecology of animal. (link between physiology and ecology!) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| universal molecule of life |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| total energy expenditure of an animal per unit time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius
-->Commonly measured energetic input in kilocalories (kcal) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| maintenance, repair, work, growth, reproduction ===HEAT |
|
|
Term
| How to measure Metabolic Rate |
|
Definition
>Direct calorimetry (calor = heat, metry = measure)
- Energy expenditure and heat production directly related
- Measures heat given off by animal
>Indirect calorimetry
- Rate of oxygen used by animal field - Rate of CO2 produced by animal
- Decrease in fat stores across a season - How much food is an animal
eating/day/week/season |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(endo = inside, therm = heat) generate their own heat
‐ Mammals, birds, some fish (tuna & marlin) and sharks ‐ Higher metabolic rates
-->heat from within |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
(ecto=outside, therm = heat) gain heat from the environment
‐ Amphibians, reptiles, most fish, invertebrates, dinosaurs? ‐ Lower metabolic rates
-->heat from outside |
|
|
Term
| Bioenergetic Strategies (Endo vs. Ecto) |
|
Definition
ENDO
• High maintenance costs • Less energy devoted to:
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Able to live in cold climates
• Consistently high activity
ECTO
• Low maintenance costs • More energy devoted to:
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Range constrained by climate
• Activity constrained by climate |
|
|
Term
| Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)* - Endotherms |
|
Definition
| A minimum rate of energy use that powers basal functions such as cell maintenance, breathing, & heart rate |
|
|
Term
| Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR)* - Ectotherms |
|
Definition
| Metabolic rate of a fasting, resting, non-stressed ectotherm at a particular temperature |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Metabolic rate is influenced by a number of Factors:
1) Body Size
2) Temperature
3) Time of day
4) Hormonal status
5) Oxygen availability
6) Activity
7) Reproductive status
8) Time since last meal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| As body size increases, the amount of energy required to maintain each gram of tissue decreases. (one gram of a small animal uses more E than one gram of a large animal) |
|
|
Term
| Metabolic rate per gram/tissue |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Relationship between Temp & Metabolism exists because... |
|
Definition
| Cellular processes are temperature dependent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The sensitivity of a life process to temperature (such as an enzymatic reaction)
The Q10 is a measure of the temperature sensitivity
of a cellular process.
Q10 = RT R = Rate of reaction RT-10 degrees
Reaction that is not T sensitive Q10 = 1 Reaction that is more T sensitive Q10 > 1 |
|
|
Term
| Blood Pressure = Flow x Resistance |
|
Definition
| Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume x Heart Rate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Special hemoglobin that fetuses produce with a higher affinity for oxygen, ensures fetus always has a steady supply of O2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Always more O2 available in air than in water
Air at sea levels is about 21% O2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Trachae: Large network of branching tubes that reach every cell in body, trachae open to outside, body movements of insect pump air through trachae |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Balloon-like sacks encased in a dense capillary bed (which pick up O2), alveoli is one cell layer thick, gas exchange site in the lungs, located at the end of the bronchioles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lubricates the alveolar surface and reduces surface tension |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| covers each lung, exerts surface tension against lung to keep lung expanded in chest, separate membrane on the right and the left |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Breathing center in the brain (pons and medulla), PCO2 in the brain and PO2 detectors in the aorta detect the level of gases in the blood, when PCO2 is too high, breathing rate increases to get rid of CO2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of air that a mammal inhales or exhales with each breath |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Max tidal volume during forced breathing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The amount of air left in the lungs after a forceful exhale |
|
|
Term
| Instantaneous Response System |
|
Definition
| Contrasts with the endocrine system which can take seconds to minutes to respond to stimuli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cells in the nervous system that send and receive electrical and chemical signals to and from other cells throughout the body, all animals but sponges have them |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Single or branching, receive incoming signals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contains nucleus and organelles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Transmits info away from cell body, axon hillock is near body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region of cell body where signals that travel down axon are generated |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| layer of insulation/fat wrapped around axon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the end of the axon that terminates on the postsynaptic cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| provide structural support and regular extracellular ion and neurotransmitter concentrations; may be involved in learning and memory, help establish the blood brain barrier |
|
|
Term
| Glial Cells: Oligodendrocytes & Schwan Cells |
|
Definition
| Form the myelin sheath around axons of neutrons, Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes wrap around the axon during development |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Site of communication between the synaptic terminal and another cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A tight net of cells surrounding capillaries (connected via tight junctions which stitch together cells so nothing gets in between) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Voltage is to the flow of electrically charged particles as pressure is to the flow of water
wires: electric current carried by e-
cells- electric current carried by ions |
|
|
Term
| What causes resting potential? |
|
Definition
Differences in concentration of Na+ and K+
1) the tendency of ions to diffuse down their concentration gradient
2) the tendency of like charged particles to repel each other
-->Sets up the electro-chemical gradient with these forces acting in opposite directions.
*Creates a difference in charge (voltage) across membrane* |
|
|
Term
| Resting Membrane Potential |
|
Definition
| The point at which the electrical gradient and the chemical gradient balance each other out |
|
|
Term
| How is the resting membrane potential maintained? |
|
Definition
1. Na+/K+ ‐ATPase
(sodium‐potassium pump)
–Transports 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ moved in
2. Ion specific channels allow passive movement of ions
– More K+ channels in membrane
– Membrane more permeable to K+
3. Negatively charged molecules such as proteins more abundant inside cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1) Action Potentials result from a sudden change in the resting membrane potential.
2) That change is propagated down the neuron in a fast, self-propagating way.
3) When action potential arrives at the other end of neuron, it will result in release or inhibition of neurotransmitters.
Once it is triggered it is the same magnitude regardless of the strength of the stimulus.
Usually last 1-2 milliseconds and can carry information across long distances.
Both Na+ and K+ voltage gated ion channels are involved |
|
|
Term
| What causes the initial change in the resting membrane potential? |
|
Definition
Ion gates that are triggered by 1 of 3 different stimuli.
Leads to a GRADED POTENTIAL. |
|
|
Term
| Stretch-gated (mechanical) ion channels |
|
Definition
| membrane is mechanically deformed and channel opens |
|
|
Term
| Chemically gated ion channels |
|
Definition
| respond to chemical binding to a receptor in the synapse such as a neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
| Voltage-gated ion channels |
|
Definition
| found in axons, neurons and responds to changes in membrane potential |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When the membrane potential becomes more positive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When the membrane potential becomes more negative |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– Depolarization or hyperpolarization
– Varies depending on strength of stimulus
– Occur locally, spread a short distance, and dies out
*Amount of Na+ that come in leads
to proportional change in membrane potential* |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– Always the same large amplitude depolarization
– All‐or‐none – you get one or you don’t |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Changes in membrane potential below this will not cause an action potential
Below the threshold, depolarizations are graded and will die out
BUT if graded potential is strong enough to reach axon hillock...get action potential |
|
|
Term
| What is happening with Action Potentials? |
|
Definition
REST: K+ channels__open___
DEPOLARIZATION:
Na+ voltage-gated channel activation gate _opens__
Na+ voltage-gated channel inactivation gate _is open__ then after a slight delay it _closes__.
HYPERPOLARIZATION:
Voltage-gated Na+ channel inactivation gate is _closed__
Voltage gated K+ channel is _open_. |
|
|
Term
| Big Picture for Action Potentials |
|
Definition
1) Action Potentials are a sudden large change in the resting membrane potential.
2) That change is propagated down the neuron in a fast, self-propagating way.
3) When action potential arrives at the other end of neuron, it will result in release or inhibition of neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
| Absolute Refractory Period |
|
Definition
-During the undershoot phase (hyperpolarization), Na+ inactivation gates remain closed
-Because the gate is closed, another AP can not be
generated for 1-2 ms
-The refractory period sets a maximum frequency for which action potentials can be generated. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| AP’s jump from node to node |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| patient’s own body destroys myelin as if it were a foreign substance impairing function of myelinated neurons controlling movement, speech, memory, and emotion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gap junctions which allow the electrical current to be propagated to the next neuron (neuron to neuron) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Areas where neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles in response to the action potential (neuron to neuron or to other cell)
Neurotransmittors are released from vesicles via exocytosis into the synaptic cleft. They then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cause postsynaptic cell to depolarize |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cause postsynaptic cell to hyperpolarize |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Myelinated axons grouped together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Neuronal cell bodies, dendrites and some unmyelinated axons
Ridges = gyri
Valleys = sulci |
|
|
Term
| Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary) |
|
Definition
– Sensory neurons receive stimuli such as heat, vision, smell, taste, hearing, touch and transmit to CNS
– Motor neurons control skeletal muscles |
|
|
Term
| Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary) |
|
Definition
– Sensory neurons detect internal body conditions
– Predominantly composed of motor neurons control smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands
– Regulates Homeostasis and Organ Function |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| – “fight or flight”, rapid activation of systems – Increased heart rate, faster breathing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– “rest and digest”, maintain & restore body
functions
– Slow heart rate, promote digestion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
• GABA is a neurotransmitter that has an inhibitory effect on neurons.
• When GABA attaches to its receptor on the postsynaptic membrane, it allows Cl‐ ions to pass into the neuron.
• This hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic neuron to inhibit transmission of an impulse. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Blood and interstitial fluid are the same (in open circulatory systems) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
• Body cavity with a single
opening to the outside
• Oxygen is absorbed by body cells in cavity
• Wastes are excreted into the cavity
• All cells are located near cavity or extensions from it |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
• Arthropods and some mollusks
• Blood and interstitial fluid are the same (hemolymph)
• Hemolymph is pumped through open ended vessels into sinuses
• Hemolymph sluggishly returns to the heart |
|
|
Term
| Closed Circulatory Systems |
|
Definition
• Blood and interstitial fluid are physically
separated
• Larger, more active animals need a higher pressure to pump blood to all body cells
• Found in earthworms, cephalopods, and all vertebrates |
|
|
Term
| Anatomy of a Closed System |
|
Definition
Heart – pumps blood around body
Vessels – carries blood to all cells in body
Blood & Respiratory pigments (RPs) – transport medium and RPs increase O2 carrying capacity
Lungs/Gills/ventilation surface – designed to take in O2 and release CO2 efficiently and load/offload respiratory pigments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
chamber of heart that receives blood returning
to the heart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chamber of heart that pumps blood out of heart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carry blood away from heart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thin vessels where gas exchange occurs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blood travels straight from respiratory Surface (gills) to the rest of the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
blood picks up O2 in lungs then
returns to the heart before delivering O2 to the rest of body |
|
|
Term
| Atrioventricular (AV) Valves |
|
Definition
| separate atria from ventricles |
|
|
Term
| Pulmonary and Aortic Valves |
|
Definition
| separate these vessels from ventricles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Starting at right atrium
1. RT atrium to RT ventricle
2. RT ventricle to pulmonary artery
3. Through capillary beds in lungs, collects in pulmonary vein
4. Pulmonary vein to LF atrium
5. LF atrium to LF ventricle
6. LF ventricle to aorta
7. Aorta to vast network of system arteries to systemic capillary beds
8. Capillary beds to vast network of veins to vena cava (the largest vein in body)
9. Vena cava empties to RT atrium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Diastole (relaxation)
a) atria and ventricles relaxed blood
pressure lowest; 120 / *80*)
b) atria contract and ventricles fill with blood
2. Systole (contraction)
a) ventricles contract and blood is ejected from the heart (blood pressure highest; *120* / 80)
• Heart valves open and shut in response to pressure gradients (lub/dub) |
|
|
Term
| Sinoatrial Node (SA Node) |
|
Definition
pacemaker
– Collection of modified cardiac cells that spontaneously and
rhythmically generate action potentials |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| conduct signal through ventricles from the bottom to the top |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a molecule that is produced
in one part of the body but which acts on a target tissue in another part of the body, acts on targets away from where they are released |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| comprised of all the hormone secreting cells in the body (wireless, unlike the nervous system) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Paracrine- Act on nearby cells
Autocrine- Act on cells that secrete them
Neurotransmitters- Neurons that secrete hormones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secrete their products directly into internal environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secrete their products into a duct that goes out of body (sweat) or into body cavity (gut) |
|
|
Term
| Molecules that act as Hormones |
|
Definition
Proteins and peptides (most are water soluble)
ADH, oxytocin, insulin
Amines (derived from amino acids; water or lipid soluble):
Thyroxine, epinephrine (adrenaline)
Steroids (not water soluble):
testosterone, estrogen, progesterone |
|
|
Term
| Signal Transduction Pathway |
|
Definition
| When hormones bind to receptors on the target cell surface or inside the cell and elicit this pathway |
|
|
Term
| Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone |
|
Definition
| controls the arrangement of melanosomes. When melanosomes cluster around the nucleus, skin appears light, when they spread out, skin appears darker.Melanocyte-stimulating hormone controls the arrangement of melanosomes. When melanosomes cluster around the nucleus, skin appears light, when they spread out, skin appears darker. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. glucose level rises, pancreas secretes
insulin into the blood
2. insulin enhances the transport of glucose into cells & stimulates the liver and muscle to store glucose as glycogen
3. as blood glucose drops pancreas releases glucagon (a hormone) which opposes insulin
4. glucagon promotes breakdown of glycogen in the liver to release glucose into the blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neurotransmitters are released from vesicles via exocytosis into the synaptic cleft. Then they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the main integration center between the endocrine and nervous systems.
- contains two sets of neurosecretory cells that secrete hormones that are either stored in or regulate the pituitary gland |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
structurally and functionally linked to the hypothalamus.
- Composed of two distinct glands that are fused - Anterior and Posterior pituitary
- These glands are developmentally and functionally distinct |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Neurons from hypothalamus Extend to Post. Pituitary
Derived from neural tissue, derived from Neural tissue, extension of hypothalamus stores and secretes ADH and oxytocin which are made in the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Portal blood vessels connect Hypothalamus to
Anterior pituitary, derived from gut tissue, synthesizes and secretes at least 7 types of hormones:
FSH, Prolactin, LH, MSH, TSH, Endorphin, ACTH and GH |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hormones that regulate the function of endocrine tissues/organs help coordinate endocrine signaling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):
Stimulates the production of eggs by ovaries and the production of sperm by testes
Lutenizing hormone (LH):
Stimulates ovulation in females and androgen production in males
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
Stimulates the syntheses and release of T3 and T4
Corticotropin Hormone or adrenocorticotropin (ACTH):
Stimulates production of steroid hormones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hormones that have direct effects on target tissues |
|
|
Term
| Types of Non-Tropic Hormones |
|
Definition
Prolactin:
Many functions – stimulates mammary gland growth & milk synthesis; regulates fat metabolism delays metamorphosis in amphibians; many others
MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone):
Regulates activity of pigment containing cells; inhibits hunger in mammals
Endorphin (many kinds of endorphins):
Dull response to pain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- Has tropic and non-tropic effects
- Very similar in structure to prolactin and is thought to be derived from same ancestral gene
Main functions:
- signal liver to release insulin-like growth factors. These GF’s circulate and stimulate bone and cartilage growth.
- wide variety of metabolic effects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
synthesized from tyrosine in adrenal medulla (acute stress);
Epinephrine (adrenaline) & Norepinephrin (noradrenalin) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synthesized from cholesterol in adrenal cortex (chronic stress); Glucocortecoids (cortisol) & Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
primary site of synthesis is testes, Testosterone is primary androgen, stimulates the development and maintenance
of male reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| primary site of synthesis is ovaries Estradiol is primary estrogen, maintenance of female reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| primary site of synthesis is ovaries, preparing uterus, supporting pregnancy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- thicker walled
- smooth muscle layer -more elastic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| smooth squamous epithelial cells lining vessels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- thinner walls
- thin layer of smooth muscle - have valves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1 cell layer thick (endothelium) allow gas exchange; very low pressure in capillaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Force exerted by blood on the walls of blood vessels (BP= Resistance x Flow) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
– tendency of blood vessels to slow down the flow of blood
1. Basedonvesselradius, 2. length
3. bloodviscosity
Resistance is inversely proportional to radius of the vessel (r4) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| amount of blood ejected per beat, proportional to size of heart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| amount of blood the heart pumps per unit time, depends on size of heart and frequency of beats |
|
|
Term
| Myocardial infarction (MI) or heart attack |
|
Definition
• Localized regions of the heart muscle die when the blood supply is cut off
• Dead cardiac muscle does not regenerate |
|
|
Term
| How does Cytoplasmic Segregation lead to Differential Gene Expression? |
|
Definition
| Factors have to have impact on genes (cause some to turn on/off) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Programmed cell death can form patterns (cells between digits die to form free fingers and toes) |
|
|
