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BIO 20A Leah
EXAM 2
66
Biology
Undergraduate 2
05/14/2012

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Term
What are the molecular components of ATP?
Definition
Adenin, Ribose, and three Phosphates 
Term
What are the steps of fermentation from sugar to ethanol?
Definition

1. Pyruvate  --> actyladehyde + CO

2. Acetyladehyde + NADH --> ethanol + NAD+

Term
What is produced for each acetyl-Co molecule that enters the Krebs Cycle?
Definition
2CO, 2 ATP, 3 NADH, 1FADH
Term
Why is the oxidation of NADH and the synthesis of ATP "coupled" in the mitochondria?
Definition
NADH is used to generate a proton gradient which is then used to make  ATP
Term
What is the order of acceptors of electrons in the electron transport chain?
Definition

1. NADH passes electron to Quinone

2. FADHpasses electron to Quinone 

3. QH2 passes electron to cytochrome c

4. Cytochrom c passes the electron to oxygen

Term
Which complexes of the mitochondria produce QH2 (reduced quinone)?
Definition
Complex I and Complex II
Term
If big Macs were the only thing you ate? How many would you need to eat to get your daily amount of require calories ?
Definition
4
Term
If we eat a hamburger, how do we catabolize the protein?
Definition
Through hydrolysis of polypeptides that produces amino acids that are converted to pyruvate and Kreb's cycle intermediates
Term
Why do we breathe in oxygen and breathe out CO2?
Definition
The oxygen is used to make water and the CO2 comes from catabolizing sugars and fats 
Term
What is the shortest phase of the cell cycle?
Definition
The M phase 
Term
What are the phases of Mitosis?
Definition

1. Prophase

2.Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase 

Term
What happens during Prophase?
Definition
Chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down
Term
What happens during Metaphase?
Definition
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell at the metaphase plate 
Term
What happens during Anaphase?
Definition
Chromatids separate, the number of chromosomes double. Chromosomes move to identical poles (There are two identical sets)
Term
What happens during Telophase?
Definition
Nuclear envelope reforms, two nuclei are formed
Term
What is the name of the protein complex that connects the microtubules to a chromosome?
Definition
Kinetochore 
Term
MPF is composed of cyclin and kinase. During the cell cycle, what happens?
Definition
The amount of cyclin is maximized at the M-phase and the amount of kinase does not change 
Term
In which stage of meiosis does recombination of parts of chromosomes occur?
Definition
In the first meiotic prophase 
Term
What does it mean to be heterozygous for a particular trait?
Definition
It has two different alleles for the gene that specifies the trait 
Term
Hershey and Chase used radioactive isotopes to label bacteriophage and then used these radioactive phage to infect bacteria, what did they find?
Definition
32P entered the cells indicating that DNA is the genetic material of phage
Term
Why is the enzyme DNA ligase required continuously during DNA replication?
Definition
Fragments of the lagging strand must be joined together 
Term
What are the phases of the cell cycle?
Definition
G1, S, G2, M
Term
What happens during G1?
Definition
The cell grows and prepares protein for the S phase 
Term
What happens during the S phase?
Definition
DNA replication
Term
What happens during the G2 phase?
Definition
The cell continues to grow and prepares for M phase 
Term
What is a human cell containing 22 autosomes and a Y chromosome?
Definition
A sperm 
Term
What is the function of mitosis vs meiosis?
Definition
Meioisis is to make gametes and mitosis is to make all the other cells 
Term
What is synapsis?
Definition
Homologous chromosome coming together in pairs during Prophase I 
Term
During metaphase, what happens in meiosis that is different from mitosis?
Definition
In meiosis, the homologous chromosomes line up in double lines rather than single
Term
What is the products of Meiosis vs. Mitosis?
Definition

Meiosis makes 4 daughter celss with N chromsome (gametes)

Mitosis makes 2 daughter cells with 2N chromosomes

 (somatic cells) 

Term
How many chromosomes does a human have?
Definition
23 pairs 
Term
What is interphase?
Definition
It is composed of G1, S phase, and G2
Term
What is cyclin and CDK ( cyclin dependent kinase) purpose in the cell cycle?
Definition

During the cells life, the cylin builds up and fits into the CDK (MPF made, does work on the cell) 

Pushes the cell into the mitotic phase 

Term
What is cancer caused by?
Definition

Uncontrolled cell division 

From : Excessive growth factors

Turning on of cyclin at the wrong time 

Defects in tumor suppressors 

Term
What is glycolysis ?
Definition

An example of a metabolic pathway that occurs in almost all organisms (enzymes in the cytosol of a eukaroytic cell) 

 

10 enzymes=10 steps 

(Glucose is taken apart one or two atoms at a time) 

Term
What is glycolysis' function?
Definition
To make ATP and building blocks for other mlcs 
Term
What goes in to glycolysis and what comes out?
Definition

Goes in : ADP, Pi, NAD+

Comes out: 2 pyruvates, 2 ATP's, 2 NADH's 

 

6C--> two 3 C mlcs 


Takes place in the cytosol 

Term
What is fermentation?
Definition

Pyruvate + NADH--> Lactic acid + NAD+

 

when oxygen becomes available lactic acid is used for energy 

 

Term
What is the use of pyruvate when oxygen is available?
Definition

Pyruvate + NAD+ Coenzyme A+ ---> CO+ NADH + acetly Coenzyme A 

 

takes place in mitochondria 

Term
What happens during the Krebs Cycle?
Definition

The acetyl group is used to make more ATP 

 

8enzymes= 8 steps in the pathway 

Term
What is the function of the Krebs cycle?
What goes in and what comes out?
Definition

Function : to make ATP and building blocks for other mlcs and to take apart the acetyl group in small steps 

 

Goes in: Acetly group + 4C acid---> citrate 

Also ...ADP, Pi, FAD, NAD

Comes out: 4C acid (OAA), 2CO22ATPs, 3NADHs , FADH

 

takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria 

Term
What do glycolysis and the Krebs cycle produce?
Definition

6 CO2

2 ATP

10 NADHs 

2 FADH2

Term
What was the "Chemiosmotic hypothesis" that Peter Mitchell proposed?
Definition

1. NADH is used to pump H+ across the inner mitochondrial membrane, electrons go to oxygen-- drives proton pump

2. An electrochemical gradient for H+ is formed

3. ATP synthesis is done by an enzyme in the membrane that uses the H+ gradient 

Term
What do the four complexes of the mitochondrial membrane do?
Definition

Complex I- NADH dehydrogenase

NADH passes electron to Quinone (4 H+ pumped)

Comple II (not a pump) 

FADH2 passes electron through to Quinone 

Comple III, cytochrome bc 1 

QHpasses electrons to Quinone

(4 H+ pumped) 

 Complex IV- cytochrome oxidase

Cytochrome passes the electron to oxygen 

(4 H+ pumped) 

Term
How does ATP Synthase work?
Definition

 

It uses the electrochemical gradient for protons.

Protons cause the rotor to turn, this changes the shape of of the head group where ADP and Pi are bound-- promoting the synthesis of ATP 

 

For every 3 protons moving through the enzyme, 1 ATP is made. 

 

(Also called ATPase-- rxn is reversible) 

Term
What are the parts of ATP Synthase?
Definition

Round head piece- site of ADP and Pi bonding

Stalk and membrane part- rotor

Section that connects the membrane and head group- stator 

Term
How do we break down the components of a Big Mac to use them as energy?
Definition

Bun-- chains of glucose broken down by hydrolysis 

Goes to glycolysis or stored as glycogen in liver, muscle 

 

Beef Patty--protein, polypeptides broken apart by hydrolysis

--amino acids converted to pyruvate, acetyl groups, or Krebs cycle intermediates 

 

Term
What is the role of the spindle in the cell cycle?
Definition

Partitioning depends on a special aparatus made mostly of microtubules and microtubule motors

 

"spindle" is an arangment of microtubules 

Term
What is the centrosome?
Definition

It is an organzing structure made of special protein

 

Centrioles are in the center of the microtubules 

Term
How many kinetochores are on each chromosome?
Definition

There is one kinetochore for every chromatid, so two on a chromsome 

(each side is connected to another pole) 

Term
What is cytokinesis ?
Definition

Division of the whole cell

 

Animals- involves actin and myosin, actin forms a ring around the area to be divided, attached to the plasma membrane---myosin causes the ring to contract (the new cell is pinched off) 

 

Term
What is karyotype?
Definition
A description of an organisms set of chromosomes 
Term
What are linked genes?
Definition

Genes on the same chromosome that only separate if parts of the chromosome are exchanged during crossing over in meiosis 

# of recombinated progeny/ total # of progeny

1%= 1 map unit apart 

Term
What are the sex chromosomes? What makes a male or female?
Definition

X & Y ( y has few active genes) 

Some genes are sex linked (color blindness, muscular dystophy) 

 

XX female,  XY male 

Term
What is incomplete dominance?
Definition

Many flowers show this 

 

Red R , white r 

F1-- all are Red Rr

F2--  1 RR,  2 Rr,  1 rr 

Term
What is an example of multiple alleles ?
Definition

ABO blood type.

 

The three alleles specify what kind of sugar is put on a class of glyolipid in red blood cells 

 

There are three loci and six alleles 

AA BB AB Ai, Bi, ii

 

Term
What was Griffiths experiment?
Definition

He worked with virulent and benign strains of pneumonia 

 

Form R (benign) and S 

-experiment showed that information for infection in the S cells was somehow taken up and expressed by the R cells 

-R cells were transformed into S cells by the heat-killed S cells 

Term
What was Avery's experiment?
Definition

He was looking for a transforming substance 

Inactivated only by DNAase

Concluded : DNA carries the genetic information for infection 

Term
What was Hershey-Chase's experiment?
Definition

Used a bacterial virus

Found that the S-35 protein from virus is not injected into cells but the P-32 DNA is injected 

Concluded: DNA carries genetic info

Term
What was Beadle and Tatum's experiment?
Definition

They worked with Neurospore Crassa

 

Experiment- isolation of mutants that required different metabolites 

They used the mutants to determine order of steps in a metabolic pathway 

Term
What is the genetic code?
Definition

Three bases, a codon, that specify an amino acid 

 

ATG- start, endcodes methionine 

TAA, TAG, TGA- stop, do not encode for an amino acid 

Term
What are viruses?
Definition

They are genes (6-100) That are packaged in a protein coat 

They behave like parasites and use cells to reproduce 

Cause diseases ( HIV, flu, SARS, hepatitis) 

 

Antibotics do not work on them 

 

Many viruses have RNA genomes

Term
What is a uncoupler?
Definition
NADH+ O2 --> NAD+ H2O
Term
What are the reactions that are categorized as substrate level phosphorylation?
Definition

Glyceraldhyde-P  + ADP + NAD---> bis-P glycerate + NADH

 

bis-P glycerate + ADP ---> P-glycerate + ATP 

 

(Krebs cycle)

Succinyl CoA + Pi + ADP  ---> succinate + ATP 

Term
What are the products of glycolysis and the Kreb's cycle?
Definition
2FADH, 4ATP, 6CO2,  10NADH
Term
What happens after glycolysis if no oxygen is present? (In human bodies)
Definition
pyruvate + NADH --> lactic acid + NAD+
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