Summarize the 3 basic functions of the nervous system.

1. sensory neurons receive information from the sensory receptors,
2. interneurons transfer and interpret impulses, and
3. motor neurons send appropriate impulses/instructions to the muscles and glands.

Nernst Potential (millivolts) for:

Na+

Nernst Potential (millivolts) for:

K+

Nernst Potential (millivolts) for:

Cl-

Nernst Potential (millivolts) for:

Ca++

E_{x =  61.5   log  [x] out} 

   n        [x] in

1.  Blocking the neurotransmitter receptor.

2.  Blocking the reuptake transporter molecules.

3.  Increasing the amount of neurotransmitter released.

4.  Inhibiting the enzymes that destroy neurotransmitters.

Give an example of and explain how:

Drugs blocking the neurotransmitter receptor.

Give an example of and explain how:

Drugs block the reuptake transporter molecules

-If reuptake of the neurotransmitter is blocked, then the neurotransmitter will accumulate in the synaptic cleft and its effectiveness will be enhanced.

-Prozac acts by blocking the seratonin transporter and therefore blocks the reuptake of seratonin at the presynaptic terminal. 

Give an example of and explain how:

Drugs increase the amount of neurotransmitter released.

-May result from an increase in the amount of calcium in the presynaptic terminal

-Nicotine may act this way

Give an example of:

Drugs that inhibit the enzymes that destroy neurotransmitters.

1. Its sensory systems permit it to sense events occurring inside and outside the body.
2. It interprets, integrates, and may store this sensory information (memories), then it decides on an appropriate response.
3. It sends commands to muscles and glands (MOTOR function of NS)

Dura mater

Arachnoid mater

Pia mater

inflammation of meninges

(usually the arachnoid mater or pia mater)

1. Maintains a constant external environment for neurons and neuroglia
2. Provides mechanical cushion (protects the brain from skull bones)
3. The bouyant action floats the brain to reduce its effective weight
4. Removes waste from the brain and transfers it to blood.

White matter  = wiring

Grey matter = circuit boards

• Cardiac Center:  regulation of heart rate
• Vasomotor Center:  dilation/constriction of blood vessels
• Respiratory Center: regulation of rate, rhythm, and depth of breathing
• Other:  reflexes such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and breathing

• A bulge on the underside of the brain stem, separating the midbrain from the medulla
• Function: involved in the regulation of the rate and depth of breathing

• Located just above the pons
• Structures:  Cerebral Peduncles (on underside) 

Corpora Quadrigemina (on upper surface)
Superior Colliculi

Inferior Colliculi

Function: controls eye/head/neck movements in response to VISUAL stimuli

Located on the upper surface of the midbrain.

Function: controls head/neck movements in response to auditory stimuli

Located on the upper surface of the midbrain.

• coordinated smooth movement and posture
• timing of movements
• and regulation rate, range, force and direction of movements

• "Tree of Life"
• Cerebellum
• Gray matter on outside, white matter on inside

• a major relay and processing station for sensory info from the cerebellum or basal ganglia on its way to the cerebrum
• located within the diencephalon

Homeostasis: monitors osmotic pressure of body fluids and body temperature, maintains water balance, controls the autonomic NS

Directs release of hormones from pituitary glands.

Involved in emotional and motivational behaviors.

Located within the diencephalon. 

lies deep within the lateral fissure under the parietal, frontal and temporal lobes

out of sight

Cerebrum:  caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus

Midbrain:  substantia nigra, subthalamic nucleus

"knowing how"

learning of motor skills: knowing how to type, play the piano, ride a bike

"working memory"

working memory is a store that holds important info in the mind for brief periods of time

seems to be associated with 'inner speech'

involves many brain areas, especially prefrontal cortex

"knowing that"

names of things and people, occurences, events

Short-term (events that occurrred days to weeks before)

Long-term (lasts years or a lifetime)

Hippocampus involvement:  creation of new long-term memories

A region of the limbic system involved in declarative memory.

Removal prevents creation of new long-term memories

1. Exteroceptive senses
2. Proprioceptive senses
3. Visceroceptive senses

respond to changes in muscle length, tendon tension, joint angle, deep pressure

important in guiding body movements

associated with changes in the internal environment

example: blood pressure by detecting stretch of walls in aorta

1. Superior rectus
2. Inferior rectus
3. Medial rectus
4. Lateral rectus
5. Superior oblique
6. Inferior oblique

rotates eye

upwards

and

to midline

between retina and sclera

provides oxygen and nourishment to retina

1. (photoreceptors)
2. bipolar cells
3. horizontal cells
4. amacrine cells
5. ganglion cells

vestibular

head rotation (part of balance)

vestibular

sensitive to head tilt and acceleration

on the surface of the basilar membrane, within scala media

contains hair cells

1. accumulation of dry wax or other substance in the external auditory meatus
2. hardened, torn, or perforated eardrum
3. otosclerosis:  deposition of new bone at the base of stapes, restricting its motility

1. excessively loud noise (temp or permanent) 
2. tumor in the CNS
3. cerebrovascular accident or stroke
4. certain drugs

1. gaseous exchange
2. delivery of major nutrients
3. removal of waste
4. delivery of hormones
5. defence: leukocytes and antibodies
6. thermal exchange:  heat conservation and heat loss
7. transportation of water

1. capacity
2. resitance
3. heart rate and myocardial contractility
4. volume of blood in circulation is regulated by kidneys

1. parietal pericardium (outer layer)
2. visceral pericardium (inner layer)

1. epicardium
2. myocardium
3. endocardium

fibrous cords that connect the pointed ends of the AV valves to the inner surface of the ventricles

prevents the valve from turning inside out when the ventricle contracts

1. arteries
2. arterioles
3. terminal arterioles
4. capillaries
5. venules
6. veins

System Arteries are always ________.

(oxygenated or deoxygenated)

Which has greater blood pressure:

Arteries or Veins

Which has greater blood pressure:

Systemic or Pulmonary

List these in order of highest pressure:

Systemic Artery, Systemic Vein, Pulmonary Artery, Pulmonary Vein

Systemic Artery

Pulmonary Artery

Systemic Vein

Pulmonary Vein

Tunica Adventitia

Tunica Media

Tunica Intima

Carry blood away from the heart

Thick Tunica Media

ONLY Tunica Intima

NO tunica media or tunica adventitia

Exchange vessels of the circulation.

Deliver nutrients, hormones, oxygen, etc to tissues

Remove CO2, lactic acid, etc

returns blood to the heart

large diameter w/ little elasticity

Middle Cerebral

Anterior Cerebral

Posterior Cerebral

2 Carotid arteries

2 Vertebral arteries

also:

Anterior communicating

Posterior communicating

1. Filling
2. Atrial systole
3. Onset of ventriculor systole: isovolumic ventricular contraction
4. Ejection
5. Isovolumic relaxation
6. Onset of Filling, Stage 1

Characteristics of Cardiac Cycle:

Stage 1. Filling

• Artria and ventricles are relaxed
• A-V valves are wide open
• Semilunar valves are closed
• DIASTOL
• Pressure slightly higher in venae cavae and atria than in ventricles, blood passively enters
• 70% of filing is this way

• The atria contract, filling ventricles completely (30%)
• Then ATRIAL DIASTOLE: atria relax

• First stage of ventricular systole
• Ventricles contract
• A-V valves close passively
• Continued contraction w/blood neither coming in or going out

• Pressure in ventricles exceeds pressure in pulmonary arteries and aorta so semilunar valves open
• blood flows into pulmonary arteries and aorta
• enter VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE when ventricles relax

• Pressure drops in ventricles, semilunar valves lose
• all four valves closed
• blood neither flowing into or out of ventricles

pressure in ventricles falls below pressure in atria, A-V valves open

blood rushes in

1. SINUS NODE:  increases heart rate
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE of ventricles: increases myocardial contractility

1. Accelerates heart rate (SA node)
2. Increases force of contraction
3. Norepinephrine is released and acts on β-adrenergic receptors in the pacemaker celss of SA node
4. Action of norepinephrine  on the heart is blocked by β-blockers

1. Slows heart rate (SA node)
2. Does NOT alter force of contraction
3. Acetylcholine is released and acts on Nicotinic receptors, which release acetylcholine which then binds to MUSCARINIC recpters
4. Muscarinic receptors are blocked by ATROPINE

S₁

onset of ventricular systole

closure of A-V valves (mitral and tricuspid)

marks the end of ventricular systole

occurs when the semilunar valves close

Valve leakage

Systolic murmur

Diastolic murmur

A= P-wave

B= QRS complex

C= T-wave

Calculations

Stroke volume

stroke volume =

end diastolic volume - end systolic volume

Calculations

Pulse Pressure

Pulse pressure =

systolic aortic pressure - diastolic aortic pressure

Calculations

Mean Blood Pressure (calcs)

mean blood pressure =

diastolic aortic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure

-or-

total peripheral resistance x cardiac output

Calculations

Cardiac Output

cardiac output=

heart rate x stroke volume

Calculations

Total Peripheral Resistance

total peripheral resistance =

mean blood pressure / cardiac output

Calculations

Ejection Fraction

ejection fraction =

stroke volume / end diastolic volume

1. Preload
2. Afterload
3. Heart Rate
4. Myocardial Contractility

resistance to ejection of blood from the ventricles

so called because it is a load that occurs after the ventricles have started to contract

1. Pressure in the aorta
2. Total peripheral resistance
3. Pathological changes that lead to narrowing of the aortic valve or aorta

1. Norepinephrine and epinephrine
2. Increased extracellular calcium
3. Digitalis

1. Cardiac Output
2. Total peripheral resistance
3. Capacity of the venous system
4. Volume of fluid in the circulatory system

Helps to control blood pressure

by manipulating the 3 of the 4 factors that determine heart rate if one should fail

Femoral vein --> Common Iliac --> Descending Aorta -->

Inferior Vena Cava --> right atrium of the heart