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| thought species changed but was incorrect about the mechanism; thought it was due to their use or disuse and acquired characteristics could be inherited |
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| darwin got to go on a trip around the world to observe organisms, especially in south america and galapagos; noticed that species in temperate south america more closely resembled species in tropical south america instead of temperate europe and specieson galapagos most closely resembled species on mainland |
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| darwin used the phrase decent with modification rather than evolution |
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| four observations of darwin |
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| varation of traits in a population, traits are inherited by offspring, species are capable of producing more offspring than environment can support, therefore, many offspring do not survive to reproduce themselves |
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| some individuals have traits that allow them to produce more offspirng than others, the unequal ability of individuals to surive and reproduce leads to the accumulation of favorable traits in populations over generations |
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| individuals do not evolve... |
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| guppy experiment, evolution of drug resistant pathogens |
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| shows there used to be organisms that dont exist anymore and todays organisms didn't always ecist; shows transitional forms |
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| similtarity in anatomy of different organisms due to common ancestry such as the human arms and bat wings and tails on human embryos |
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| remnants of features that served important functions in organism's ancestors but were late selected against once they were no longer neeed, like the hind limbs of wails and the tailbone of humans |
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| unrelated organisms that have adapted to similar environments in similar ways, have analogous structures rahter than homologous structures like the wings of a butterfly and the wings of a bird |
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| study of where organisms live; evolution along with geology explain things like why there are fossils of the same speices on south ameria and africa and why island species are most closely related to species on the nearest mailand |
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| change in allele frequencies in a population over generations |
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| a measure of the genetic diversity of an individual; the % of an individual's loci that are heterozygous |
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| the origional source of all alleles |
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| increases variation in the population by recombining genes in new ways |
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| the hardy winburg equation |
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| conditions of hardy winburg equlibrium |
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| no mutations, random mating, no natural selecction, extremely large population size, no gene flow |
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| the only force that chances allele frequency that causes adaptive evolution |
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| how many offspring one individual produces compared to others in the population |
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| favors one extreme of a phenotypic ange, for expample, faovring the largest anmial the larger the better |
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| disruptive natural selection |
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Definition
| favors either extreme of the phenotypic range, while the ones in the middle are less fit, for example, birds with large beaks can crack large seeds, birds with small beaks can crack small seeeds but birds with medium seeds can't crack either |
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| stabalizing natural selection |
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| favors individuals win the middle of the range, while ones on the extremes are at a disadvantage; tends to keep population the same over time, for example very large or very small baby humans don't survive as well as ones around 7 or 8 lbs |
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| important in small populations, alleles can be lost from small populations just by chance, at random, even if they are advantageous alleles, can even cause harmful alleles to become fixed |
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| hen a small population is founded by a small subset of a bigger population, the small population may not be representative of the biggere population |
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| when a large population is suddenly reduced in numbers, the survivors are much less genetically diverse and some alleles may be lost form the gene pool, important in endangered species conservation |
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| genes from one population getting into another, can be advantageous or disadvantageous, advantageous if alleles coming in are favorablle; can help restore diverstiy due to genetic drift, disadvantageous if alleles coming in are not favorable in the new environment; can undo the effects of natural selection; an example would be plants adapted to a certain soil type gettin gpollen blown in from plants on another soil type |
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| a special type of natural selection where certain characteristics make it easier fo rindividuals to obtain mates, often results in sexual dimorphisms, where the two sexes look different, sexually slection acts upon traits that are not directly related to reproduction and survival and can even make survival harder |
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| competition between members of the same sex, like males fighting over femals |
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| mate choice usually femalses choosing among various males; showy characterstics may advertise the genetic quality of different males to the females |
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| why dont things genetic drift and natural selction make all loci become fized? |
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Definition
| have only one allele for each locus |
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| recessive allels can be maintained in a population because they are masked by the dominat allele |
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| the heterozygote is fitter than either homozygote so both alleles are maintained in the population (an example is sickle cell disease in africa wehre the heterozygotes are resistant to malaria) |
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| frequency dependent selection |
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Definition
| where a phenotype declines in fitness the more common it becomes (examples ar ethe right mouthed or left mouthed scale eating fish) this causes two versions to oscillate |
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| selection can only act on existing variation |
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Definition
| mutations dont happen on demand |
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| evolution is limited by historical constraints |
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Definition
| organisms are tinkered with over time instead of being built from scratch |
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| organisms have to do many different things that many conflict (finding a mate vs. hiding from a predator) |
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| biological species concept |
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| the most commonly used species concept; organisms can mate and produce viable offspring with memebers of their own species but not with members of a different species |
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| barriers that imepede members of the two species from producing viable fertile offspring |
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| prevents sperm from fertilizing egg (habit isolation, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, gametic) |
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| prevents zygote from developing into fertile adult (reduced hybrid viability, fertility, hybrid breakdown_ |
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| limitations of the biological species concept |
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| doesn't work on extinct species, asexual species, and species that stay distinct despite gene flow |
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| caused by a geographic barrier that prevents gene flow between two populations |
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| speciation occurs in populations that live in the same area |
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| most ommon in plants; caused by accidents during cell division duplicating chromosomes |
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| all chromosomes are derived from the same species |
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| polyploid that is a hybrid of more than one species |
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| a subset of a population adapts to exploit a new habitat or resource; one example are insects that live on a certain species of plant adaptive to live on another plant |
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| some females in a population may come to prefer different males than other females, causing the species do diverge; one example are the lake victoria chichilid fish wehre some species seem to only be separated by the color patterns of the males |
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Definition
| if two allopatric populations come back together before reporductive barriers are completely formed, a hybrid zone can be form between them where hybrid offspring can be produced |
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| possible coutcomes of a hybrid zone |
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Definition
| reinforcement, fusion, stability |
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| if hybrids are less fit than pure individuals, natural selection will favor this trait that keeps each species mating with its own species rather than producing hybrids and the species continue to diverge |
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| if a hybrid individual is just as fit or even more fit than parents the two species could fuse back into one |
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| if lots of gene flow is preventing natural selection from causing reinforcement the hybrid zone may persist indefinitely |
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| at least some species seem to arise rapdily in geologic time and then remain unchaged for a long time |
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| can occur due to a change in only one allele if that allele causes reproductive isolation |
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| similuated conditions on early earth and produced amino acids |
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| since RNA can catalyze itself, scientists hypothesize that RNA were the first genes and DNA came later |
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| fossils are formed from remains of organisms buried in sediment that turns to rock |
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| using the half life of radioactive elements; a half life is the time it takes for half of the radiactive material to decay to another element so that after one half life you have half of the origional amount and so on |
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| earliest evidence of life |
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| photynthetic cyanobacteria increased the oxygen in the atmosphere between 2.7-2.2 bya rusting the iron out of the ocean to create banded iron formation |
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| 2.1 bya evovled by endozymbiosis |
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| radiation of multicellular life after the earth thawed out 535 mya |
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| worst of the big five mass extinctions coincided with the formation of pangaea supercontinent 250 mya followed by adaptive radiation of dinosaurs |
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| cretaceous mass extinction |
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| probably caused by chiczulub meteor 65 mya followed by adaptive radiation of mammals |
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| changes in the rate and timing of developmental events |
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| retention of juvenile characteristics as an adult |
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| genes that control the placement and spacial organization of body parts; mutations can cause big changes like duplications of whole body sections |
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| a structure an take on a new function different from what it was origionally used for |
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| can be misleading if extinct side brahcnes are not shown |
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| hypothesis that natural selection can work on species instead of individuals, where speciation is their birth and extinction is their death; the species that endure the longest and give birth to the most descendant sepcies determine the direction of evolutionary trends |
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| the evolutionary history of species or group secies |
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| a disciple focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships |
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| naming and classifying of organisms |
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| the unique name for each species consisiting of its genus name ans specific epithet whole thing italicized |
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| linnaean classification system |
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| the level of taxonomic hierarchy |
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| a branching diagram showing a hypothesis for the evolutionary relationships between a group of species |
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| similarities species have due to inheriting them from a common ancestor such as the bone structure of the forelims of mammals |
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| similiarities species have due to convergent evolution, not common ancestry, the species evolved similar adapatations independiently because of adapting to a similar environment in a similary way such as the shape of dolphins and sharks |
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| needs to be distingues when constructing a phylogeny. analgies mistaken for homologies can cause scientiests to make the mistake of classifying unrelated species together |
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| an approach to systemtatics that uses common ancestry as the primary criterion to classify organisms into clades |
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| a group of organisms that inclues an ancestor and all of its descendants; the goal of cladistics is to make all groups monophyletic |
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| contains an ancestral species iwth some but not al of its descendants for example, reptiles is paraphyletic if it doesnt contain birds because birds are descended from reptiles |
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| when organsisms with different ancestors are grouped together ie. kingdom protista |
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| know how to construct a phylogentic tree using pg. 543, 546 |
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| phylogenetic tree lengths |
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| can represent time or genetic distance with those variables shown on the x axis |
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| homologous genes that are found in different species due to speciation |
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| result from gene duplication in one genome |
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| a way to estimate the time of evolutationary change based on the observation that some genes evovle at constant rates |
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| the idea that much evolutionary change has no effect on fitness and therefore is not influenced by natural selection |
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| bacteria archaea, eukarya |
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