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| a molecule of DNA packaged up with proteins |
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| the DNA and protein that chromosomes are made of |
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| when a chromosome is replicated, it is now composed of two sister chromotids joined at their centromeres |
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| cells that are not reproductive cells; have 2n chromosomes; in humans 2n=46; divide by mitosis for organism to grow and repair damage |
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| reproductive cells like sperm and eggs, have 1n chromosomes, half as many as somatic cells; in humans 1n=23 |
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| division of th enucleus into two nuclei that are identical to each other and to the original nucleus with the same number of chromosomes |
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| usually follows mitosis; division of the cytoplasm into two whole cells |
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| mitosis, when the cell divides into two identical daughter cells |
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| all of the phases that aren't M phase; much longer than M phase |
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| first gap phase when the cell grows bigger |
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| synthesis phase where chromosomes are replicated |
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| second gap where cell prepares for M phase |
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| a non-dividing state that some cells like muscle cells and brain cells can enter. Cells can go from G1 phase to G- phase instead of going into S phase |
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| chromosomes condense and become think enought to be seen with a light microscope, each chromosome has already been duplicated into two sister chromatids joined at centromere; mitotic spindle starts to form |
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| nuclear enveolope fragments, microtubules of the mitotic spindle attach to kinetochores of the chromosomes |
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| chromosomes line up along metaphase plate and centrosomes are now at opposite sdides of cell; this is the longest phase of mitosis |
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| sister chromatids are pulled apart into separate chromosomes and start to move towards opposite sides of cell; shortest stage of mitosis |
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| daughter nuclei form, cytokinesis divdes whole cell into two with two identical nuclei in plant cells with cell plate and in animcal cells with cleavage furrow |
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| usually caused by a loss of cell cycle control so that cells won't stop dividing |
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| density-dependent inhibition |
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| cels dont stop dividing when they fill up a space, grow into a lump of tissue called a tumor that can press against or even invade other tissues and organs |
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| cells can grow in areas they're not supposed to |
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| when cancer spreads to different areas of the body |
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| transmission of traits from one genreation to next |
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| not all offspring are identical |
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| the unit of heredity, corresponds to a segment of DNA, can change through mutation |
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| the reporductive cells that transmit genes from parents to ffspring; in humans they are sperm and egg cells |
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| the location of a gene on a chromosome |
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| one individual is hte parent and transmits all of its DNA to offspring; the only way offspring can come out genetically different is through mutation |
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| two parents have offspring with a mixture of genes from two parents; offspring are genetically different from parents and can also be different from siblings from the same parent |
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| reduces the number of chromosomes in gametes by half so that offspring have same number of chromosomes as parents |
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| chromosomes condense and nuclear envelope breaks down like in prophase of mitosis but then homologous chromosomes join, chiasmata form where chrossing over occurs where chromosomes swap some genes |
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| paires of homologous chromosomes are still joined and line up along metaphase plate |
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| homologous chromosomes are separated but sister chromatids are not, chromosomes start to move to opposite ends of cell |
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| like telophase of mitosis, but two cells are formed that have half the number of chromosomes as the original cell |
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| the chromosomes still consist of two sister chromatids |
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| chromosomes line up on metaphase plate again |
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| now is when sister chromatids are separated like in mitosis |
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| happens in mitosis and now there are four cells with only one set of chromosomes each; cells are all different from each other and from parent cell making genetic variation |
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| basically the same as homozygous, offspring from them all have same traits |
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| mating two different true breeding varieties together |
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| parental generation of a hybridization experiment |
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| the first generation of offspring from the hybridization |
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| the first generation you get when you mate the F1 generation together |
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| how they used to think genetics worked. offspring are a blend of their parents, like mixing red and white to make pink |
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| traits are passed to offspring in discrete unites; alternate versions of genes are called alleles |
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| law of independent assortment |
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| when one gene ontrols multiple phenotypic traits instead of just one |
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| when one gene affects the expression of another gene. |
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| one trait is controlled by multiple genes |
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| some traits result from a combination of an organism's genes and the environment |
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| a recessive trait where a preson can't make melanin pigment and has white hair, pale skin, and blue or pink eyes |
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| recessive, most common in people of european descent, missing or defective cell membrane protein for chloride ion channel; causes multiple symptoms like chronic bronchitis and recurrent bacterial infections |
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| missing an enzyme to metabolize certain lipids which can build up in the brain and cause brain damage |
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| dominant; most common form of dwarfism, |
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| dominant; lethal, but doesnt affect a person until late 30's or 40's; causes deterioration of th enervous system and is ultimately fatal |
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| a needle is inserted into the uterus and amniotic fluid is extracted which contains fetal cells |
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| chorionic villus sampling |
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| a narrow tube is inserted through the cervix and a tiny sample of tissue is sunctioned from the placenta which contains fetal cells that can be tested |
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| tests newborns for phenylketonuria, where baby cannot metabolize phenylananine; newborn can be put on special diety and will be healthy |
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| sex0linked genes are on the X chromosome; results in males being much more likely to have a recessive sex linked trait than females do because they only need one copy of the defective gene while females need two |
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| so that females wont have twice as many gene products from the X chromosomes as males, one C in each of a female;s cells are condensed into a Barr body and deactivated |
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| same combination of genes as parents |
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| new combination of genes; linked genes can be recombined by crossing over |
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| when chromosomes fail to separate in meiosis leaving some gametes with extra chromosomes and some missing chromosomes |
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| the condition of having an abnormal number of chromsomes |
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| only has one of that chromosome instead of 2 |
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| has three of that chromosome instead of two |
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| has whole extra sets of chromosomes |
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| part of a chromosome is lost |
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| part of achromosome is turned around backwards |
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| part of achromosome is broken off and attached to another chromosome |
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| trisomy 21; the only human trisomy where a person can live past birth, though lifespan is reduced |
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| XXY; sterile male with some female characteristics and some mental retardation |
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| person with just one X; sterile female, normal intelligence |
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| people with karyotype XXX and XYY |
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| develop into normal males and females |
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| deletion of short arm of chromosome 5, causes baby to have a distinctive cat like cry to malformed larynx, small head with distinctive facial features, mental retardation, reduced lifespan |
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| with some genes, it matters whether the offspring get it from the father or mother; offspring will only express trait of gene from mother and one from father is deactivated or vice-versa |
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| mitochondria and chloroplasts are only inherited from mother |
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| frederick griffith's experiment on transformation of vacteria |
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Definition
| showed that nonpathogenic bacteria can absorb DNA from killed pathogenietic bacteria and become pathogenetic themselves |
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| experiment with radioactive bacteriophasges to show that DNA is transferred from virus to bacteria, not protein |
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| used X-ray crystallography to show double helical structure of DNA, her data was used by watson and crick to make their model of DNA molecule. she died of cancer before watson and crick got the nobel prize and wasn't given any credit or recognized fro her work until recently |
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| james watson and francis crick |
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Definition
| got nobel prize for making model of DNA molecule and showing how DNA can be self replicating with complementary base pairs |
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| two strands of DNA separate and are templates for new strands so that daughter molecules are half old and half new. meselson and Stahl used heavy nitrogen isotopes to show how this model was right and how conservative and dispersive models were wrong |
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| where DNA comes apart to start replicating, vacterial chromosomes have one and eukaryotic chromosomes have many |
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| sing-strand binding proteins |
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| releaves train ahead of replication fork |
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| adds DNA, can only add to 3; end; results in leading and lagging strands because of anti parallel DNA strands |
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| DNA added to lagging strands in fragments because DNA polymerase can only go in one direction |
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| joins Okazaki fragments and continous DNA moecule |
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| DNA polymerases can remove incorrect nucleiotides and replace with correct one as they replicate DNA |
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| nucleotide excision repair |
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Definition
| when DNA is damaged by environment, enzymes can cut out sections of DNA and replace |
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| because ends of DNA molecules cannot be replicated by DNA polymerase, telomeres are long stretches of nonsense DNA that get shorter with each replication and delay when "good" DNA starts getting cut off; eventually telomeres are used up, which may be a cause of aging; gametes have telomerase so that offspring start over with full length telomeres; some cancers may also have telomerase so that they can divide forever |
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| a human DNA molecule stretched out is a few cm long so it is packeaged up with proteins into a compact form that can fit in nucleus |
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| proteins that DNA is wound around |
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| nucleosomes, 30nm fiber, looped domains, metaphase chromosomes |
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| tightly packed, not being expressed |
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| loosly packed, is being expressed |
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| DNA is unwound, the strands are separated, and one strand is used as a template for a strand of mRNA; this happens in the nucleus; RNA transcriptase is the enzyme |
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Definition
| after the mRNA is processed it goes out into the cytoplasm and is used to direct the formation of a polypeptide by a ribosome |
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| mRNA is directly translated into protein as soon as it's formed; no RNA processing in prokaryotes |
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Definition
| mRNA is formed in the nucleus and modified before it leaves the nucleus for translation. A 5' cap is added to the end while a polyA tail is added to the 3' end. Introons ar eexcised by splicosomes and exons are joined together to create the final mRNA transcript that is translated into protein |
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| alternative mRNA splicing |
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Definition
| allows different proteins to be made of the same mRNA depending on what is considered an intron and removed, or exon and left in for translation |
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| a piece of RNA that can act as a catalyst like an enzyme |
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| a single base pair in a gene is changed |
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| a point mutation where one base pair is changed to another |
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| a mutation that hase no effect on the encoded protein |
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| a mutation that results in one amino acid being changed to another |
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| results in a codon for an amino acid being changed to a stop codon |
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| gain or loss of nucleotides in a gene |
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| result of an insertion or deletion of nucleotides that arent a multiple of three, so that nucletodies downstream are grouped into the wrong codons causing missense all down the rest of the gene |
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