the amount of energy used in a unit of time

*higher for endothermic animals

*proportional to size

insulation

circulatory adaptations

evaporative heat loss

behavioral responses

regulation of metabolic heat production

single-celled: have thin, flat, sac-like bodies that allow for them to maintain cellular contact with an aqueous environment

complex: must provdide extensively branched/folded internal membranes for exchanging materials with the environment (circulatory system connects and protects from the aqueous)

epithelial

 connective

nervous

muscle

simple: epithelium of one layer

stratified: " " of multiple layers of cells

squamous (flat)

cuboidal (boxlike)

columnar (pillarlike)

loose

fibrous

adipose

cartilage

bone

blood

made of collagen and have nonelastic strength

*connective

made of the protein "elastin" and can stretch & provide resilience

*connective

made of loosely woven fibers, attaches epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place

*fibroblasts and macrophages

a special form of loose connective tissue that pads and insulates the body and stores fat

each adipose cell contains a large fat droplet

has a dense arrangement of parallel collagenous fibers

*tendons and ligaments 

tendons: attach muscles to bones

ligaments: attach bones to joints

consist of cocentric layers of matrix around a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves

aka Haversian systems

erythrocytes: RBC and carry oxygen

lack mitochondria, generate ATP by anaerobic metabolism, lack nuclei, small biconcave size makes it easy for oxygen to diffuse, packed with hemoglobin

leukocytes: WBC and funtion in defense

 5 types, phagocytes engulf bacteria, normally located in lymph nodes and interstitial fluid

platelets: cell fragments that clot blood

responsible for voluntary body movements

aka striated muscle

responsible for forming the wall of the heart

striated

joined by intercalated discs

skeletal

cardiac

smooth

composed of spindle-shaped cells lacking striations

found in walls of digestive trat, arteries, and other internal organs

involuntary control

consists of a body and 2+ processes that conduct impulses (dendrites) and away from (axons) the rest of the neuron

aka nerve cell

dendrites: carry impulses toward the neuron

axons: carry impulses away

a moist or fluid-filled body cavity

what many vertebrate organs are suspended in

excretory

endocrine

skeletal

immune/lymphatic

integumentary

nervous

digestive

respiratory

reproductive

 circulatory

(eesiinmdrrc)

components: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus

functions: food processing

components: heart, blood vessels,blood

functions: internal distribution

components: lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes

functions: gas exchange

 immune/lymphatic system

components: bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels, WBCs

functions: body defense

components: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

functions: disposal of metabolic waste, regulation of osmotic balance of blood

components: pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, other hormone-secreting glands

function: coordination of body activities

components: ovaries, testes, associated organs

function: reproduction

components: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs

function: coordination of body activities, detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them

components: skin and its derivatives

function: protection against mechanical injury, infection, drying out, thermoregulation

components: skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)

function: body support,, protection of internal organs, movement

components: skeletal muscles

function: movement, locomotion 

endothermic: warm bodies with metabolic heat (ex. birds and mammals)

ectothermic: gain heat from external sources, and require less energy (ex. reptiles, fish, aphibians)

(BMR)

the minimal metabolic rate for a nongrowing endotherm at rest, fasting and nonstressed

(SMR)

the metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, nonstressed ectotherm determined at a specific temperature

when some variable moves above or below a set point, a control mechanism is turned on or off to counteract further change in that direction

 *most homeostatic control mechanisms

poikilotherm: animals with varying internal temperatures

homeotherm: animals with stable internal temperatures

insulation

 circulatory adaptations

evaporative heat loss

behavioral responses

shivering

 (NST)

a way of generating heat through a rise in metabolic rate and the production of heat instead of ATP

brown fat is specialized for heat production by NST

open: hemolymph in the sinuses bathes the internal tissues

closed: the blood remains in the vessels and exchanges materials with the interstitial fluid

pulmocutaneous: leads to lungs and skin capillaries and them back to the L atrium

systemic: carries blood to the rest of the body and back to the R atrium

the volume of blood pumped per minute into the systemic circuit

depends on the heart rate and stroke volume

valves between each atrium and ventricle

are snapped shut when blood is forced against them as the ventricles contract

at the exit of the aorta and pulmonary artery

forced open by ventricular contraction and close when ventricles relax

aka pacemaker

the rhythm of contractions is coordinated ; a region of specializes muscle tissue located in the awal of the R atrium

initiates an electrical impulse that spreads via the intercalated disks of the cardiac muscle cells, and the 2 atria contract 

myogenic: the arrangement of pacemaker within the heart of vertebrates

neurogenic: of most arthropods, controlled by motor nerves originating outside the heart

outer connective tissue layer with elastic fibers that allow the vessel t stretch and recoil

middle layer of smooth muscle and more elastic fibers

inner lining of epithelium, a single layer of flattened cells

measures arterial blood pressure

1st number is systole

2nd number is diastole

fluid diffuses into lymph capillaries in the blood capillary net

the fluid (lymph) moves through lymph vessels with one-way valves

in the lymph nodes, lymph is filtered and WBS attack viruses and bacteria

platelets clump together along a damaged endothelium

release clotting factors

the plasma protein fibrinogen is converted to its active form of fibrin

threads of fibrin form a patch

(LDLs)

cholesterol that is associated with cholesterol deposits in plaques, growwths that develop on the inner walls of arteries

(HDLs)

cholesterol particles that appear to reduce cholesterol deposition in plaques

*atherosclerosis: plaques narrow the arteries

found in insects

tiny air tubes that branch throughout the body to come into contact with nearly every cell

air enters nostrils, where filtered & warmed

 passes through the pharynx

larynx moves up and tips the epiglottis over

travel down trachea

trachea branches into bronchi

gas exchange takes place across alveoli

lowers the floor of the oral cavity

expands and draws air into the mouth

raises the floor of the oral cavity

push air into the lungs

contraction of rib muscles makes the diaphragm contract

diaphgragm expands the chest cavity

increases the volume of the lungs

air pressue is reduced within the increased volume

air is drawn in through the nostrils and into lungs

relaxation of the rib muscles and diaphragm compresses the lungs

pressure increases and air is forced out

air sacs in abdomen, neck and wings that maintain air flow through the lungs

air sacs and lungs are ventilated through a circuit that includes a one-way passage through tiny, gas exchange channels, called parabronchi

the concentration of a gas in air or dissolved in water

gas will diffuse from higher pp to lower pp

carbon dioxide enters the RBCs

combines with water to make carbonic acid

dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions

bicarbonate goes to the plasma for transport; and hydrogen binds to hemoglobin, which reduces the pH of blood during the transport of carbon dioxide

in the lungs the diffusion of carbon dioxide out of the blood shits back to the favor from bicarbonate to CO2 

steno: able to tolerate only small changes in external osmolarity

eury: can survive large differences in the osmotic environment

compound of low solubility in water that can be secreted as semisolid

ex. birds, insects, land snails, reptiles

filtration: water and smal lsolutes are forced out of the blood or body fluids into the excretory system

reabsorption: valuable solutes are returned frm the filtrate

secretion: excess salts, toxins, and other solutes are added to the filtrate

branched systems of closed tubules, functions mainly in excretion of nitrogenous waste

flatworms

occur in pairs of each segment of an earthworm

annelids

excretory organs

insects and other terrestrial arthopods

enters kidneys via renal arteries

leaves through renal vein

exits via ureter

stored in urinary bladder

exits the body via urethra

 cortical: located entirely in the renal cortex

juxtamedullary: found only in mammals and birds; have long loops of Henle that extend into the renal medulla and allow mammals to form hyperosmotic urine

regulated variable

outside range

sensor activation

signal integration

effector activation

changes to regulated variable

(rossec)