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| ideas with great explanatory power |
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| differential success in reproduction by different phenotypes resulting from natural interactions with the environment. evolution occurs when natural selection produces changes in the relative frequencies of alleles in a population's gene pool. |
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| individuals in a population vary in many traits (Nat select) |
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| overproduction and competition |
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population of species has potential to produce far more offspring than will survive to produce offspring of their own, thus, competition is inevitable
(Nat select) |
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| unequal reproductive success |
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individuals are unequal in their likelihood of surviving and reproducing (inferred from individual variation and overproduction and competition)
(nat select) |
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accumulation of favorable variations in a population over time
(nat select) |
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| occurs as heritable variations are exposed to environmental factors that favor the reproductive success of some individuals over others. |
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| verifiable observations and measurements, can lead to important conclusions based on inductive reasoning (from specific to general) |
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| uses deductive reasoning (from general to specific) and hypothesis-or tentative answer to some question |
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| inherited traits that enhance as organism's ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment |
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| the changes in organisms over time that have transformed life on earth from its earliest forms to the diversity we see today |
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| descent with modification |
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| Darwin's initial phrase for general process of evolution |
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| the selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals. |
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| scientists who study fossils |
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| 375-myo casts of ammonites |
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| happen when the minerals harden that into replicas of an organism |
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| ordered array in which fossils appear within layers of sedimentary rocks |
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| the geographic distribution of species |
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| the comparison of body structures in different species, gives signs of common descent |
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| similarities in characteristics that result from common ancestry |
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| features that often have different functions but are structurally similar because of common ancestry. |
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| structures of marginal, if any, importance to the organism, remnants of structures that served important functions in the organism's ancestors (small hind-leg and foot bones of whales, pelvis and leg bones for snakes) |
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| comparision of early stages of development, major source of evidence for common descent of organisms |
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| enables microbiologists to read a molecular history of evolution in the DNA sequences of organisms. if two species have genes with sequences that match closely, biologists conclude they must have been inherited from a relatively recent common ancestor, and the more differences in sequences, the less likely they share a common ancestor. |
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based on the measurement of certain radioactive isotopes. fossils contain isotopes of elements that accumulated when the organisms were alive. knowing the half-life of a radioactive isotope and the ratio of radioactive to stable isotope in a fossil enables us to tell how old the fossil is.
Carbon-14 young fossils
potassium-40-older fossils
has an error factor of plus or minus 10% |
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all land on earth was once one great mass, which broke up into continents that drifted like rafts to their present positions
(Alfred Wegener) |
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| all land, 250 mya, near end of Paleozoic era, when plate movements brought all landmasses together into the supercontinent Wegener had originally proposed. |
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| the forces involved in the movement of earth's plates and the geologic processes that result |
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describes the forces involved in the movement of Earth's plates and the geologic processes that result.
crustal processes make mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes, tsunamis, islands. |
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| rocklike structures, composed of many layers of bacteria mats and sediment |
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| RNAs, can carry out a number of enzyme-like catalytic functions, help in RNA replication |
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| RNAs, can carry out a number of enzyme-like catalytic functions, help in RNA replication |
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| the hypothetical period in the evolution of life when RNA served as both rudimentary genes and the sole catalytic molecules |
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| crucial step in origin of life, isolation of a collection of abiotically treated molecules within a membrane. have formed spontaneously from abiotically produced compounds |
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a process eukaryotic cells arose from, the eukaryotic cell's endomembrane system-all the membrane-enclosed organelles except mitochondria and chloroplasts-evolved from outward folds of the plasma membrane of a prokaryotic cell.
this developed nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) |
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second process of eukaryotic cell creation.
generated mitochondria and chloroplasts.
a process by which the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells probably evolved from symbiotic relationships between small prokaryotic cells living inside larger ones. |
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| a close association between organisms of two or more species |
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a diverse collection of mostly unicellular eukaryotes
includes: algae, protozoans |
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| protist, synthesize their food by photosynthesis |
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kind of protist
heterotrophic, eating bacteria and other protists
some protists can be heterotrophic or autotrophic, depending on availability of light and nutrients. some protists are fungus-like and obtain organic molecules by absorption |
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| reproductive process that involves fertilization, the union of a sperm and egg |
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| development, from a fertilized egg to a new adult organism, is one phase of a multicellular organism's life cycle, the sequence of stages leading from the adults of one generation to the adults of the next, reproduction is the other part. |
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| the production of an offspring by a single parent, without the participation of the sperm and egg, some organisms that normally reproduce sexually, like plants, can be induced to reproduce asexually in the lab |
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| structures that contain most of the organism's DNA |
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| the reproduction of cells, what perpetuation of life is based on |
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| cell division where the cell divides in half |
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| a lineage of green algae, member of the green algael group that shares two ultrastructural features with land plants. they are considered the closest relatives of land plants |
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| the kingdom that contains plants |
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| the short time period of 15 my when many animal body plans and new phyla appear. some bizarre. could have happened cause of ecologic causes like hard body coverings or geologic changes like atmoshpheric oxygen high enough to support metabolism of more mobile animals, genetic causes-Hox complex of regulatory genes |
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| play important role in development of animal embryos |
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| dividing in half, this is how prokaryotes reproduce, a means of asexual reproduction in which a parent organism, often a single cell, divides into two individuals of about equal size. |
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the reproduction of cells.
Virchow's principle: every cell from a cell. the perpetuation of all life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division. |
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| diffuse mass of long thin fibers which chromosomes exist as, a combination of DNA and protein molecules |
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| one of the two identical parts of a duplicated chromosome in a eukaryotic cell |
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| the region of a chromosome where two sister chromatids are joined and where spindle microtubules attach during mitosis and meiosis. the centromere divides at the onset of anaphase during mitosis and anaphase II during meiosis |
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| the fourth stage of mitosis, begins when sister chromatids separate from eachother and ending when a complete set of daughter chromosomes have arrived at each of the two poles of the cell |
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| an ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two cells. growing stage (interphase) and actual cell division (mitotic phase). |
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the part of the cell cycle when the cell actually divides, accounts for only 10% of the total time required for the cell cycle.
divided into two parts: mitosis and cytokinesis, although mitosis begins before first one ends. |
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| the nucleus and its contents, including the duplicated chromosomes, divide and are evenly distributed to form two daughter nuclei. |
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| the cytoplasm divides in two |
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| a football-shaped structure of microtubules that guides the separation of the two sets of daughter chromosomes in mitosis |
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| clouds of cytoplasmic material that in animal cells contain centrioles, from which spindle microtubules emerge. |
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| a shallow groove in the cell surface |
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| a double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during photokinesis |
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| most animal cells have this-they must be in contact with a solid surface-such as the inside of a culture dish or the extracellular matrix of a tissue-to divide. |
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| density-dependent inhibition |
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| when animal cells growing on the surface of a dish multiply to form a single layer and usually stop dividing when they touch one another |
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protein secreted by certain body cells that stimulates other cells to divide
most cells require growth factors in order to begin dividing, and they stop dividing when they run out of these substances |
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a typical body cell with 46 chromosomes
any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell or a cell that develops into a sperm or egg |
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the two chromosomes that make up a matched pair in a diploid cell
homologous chromosomes are of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern and possess genes for the same characteristics at corresponding loci. one homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's father, the other from the mother. |
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| the particular site where a gene is found on a chromosome. homologous chromosomes have corresponding gene loci. |
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| a chromosome that determines whether an individual is male or female. |
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| a chromosome not directly involved in determining the sex of an organism, in mammals, for example, any chromosome other than x or y |
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| in an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell containing two homologous sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent, 2 n cell. |
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| a sex cell, haploid egg or sperm, the union of two gametes of opposite sex |
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| in the life cycle of an organism that reproduces sexually, a cell containing a single set of chromosomes, an n cell |
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| the fertilized egg which is diploid, that results from the union of a sperm cell nucleus and an egg cell nucleus |
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| a place where two homologous non-sister chromatids are attached to each other |
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| an exchange of corresponding segments between two homologous chromosomes |
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an ordered display of magnified images of an individual's chromosomes arranged in pairs, starting with the longest.
can use this to detect offspring with chromosomal abnormalities |
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| three number 21 chromosomes, making 47 in total, usually spontaneously aborted before birth, makes Down Syndrome, most common chromosome abnormality, 1 in 700, shorter life span, mental retardation, most sexually underdeveloped and sterile, 50% chance of transmitting syndrome to child, incidence increases with age of mother |
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| the fusion of sperm and egg produced by same organism |
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| fertilization of one plant by pollen from a different plant |
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| varieties for which self-fertilization produced offspring all identical to the parent |
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| offspring of two different varieties, cross fertilization is hybridization or a cross |
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| true-breeding parental plants |
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f for filial/son,
hybrid offspring |
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| when F1 generation self-fertilizes or fertilizes each other, their offspring are called this |
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| parent plants differ in only one characteristics |
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| alternative versions of a gene |
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| having two identical alleles for a given gene |
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| having two different alleles for a given gene |
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| one that determines organism's appearance |
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| has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance |
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| sperm and egg unite at fertilization, each contributes its allele, restoring the paired condition in the offspring |
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| shows four possible combinations of gametes |
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| an organism's expressed/physical traits |
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| what would result from a mating of parental varieties differing in two characteristics, equivalent to two monohybrid crosses occurring simultaneously |
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| Mendel's law of independent assortment |
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| each pair of alleles segregates independently of the other pairs of alleles during gamete formation |
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| the dominant allele had the same phenotypic effect whether present in one or two copies |
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| hybrids have an appearance in between the phenotypes of two parental varieties |
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phenotype in humans involving three alleles of a single gene, in various combos, these three alleles produce various bloodtypes, OAB OR AB
letters refer to two carbs found on surface of red blood cells |
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| additive effects of two or more genes on a single phenotypic characteristic |
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| a single gene affects several characteristics |
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| chromosome theory of inheritance |
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genes occupy specific loci (positions) on chromosomes and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis
thus it is the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization that accounts for inheritance patterns |
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