Term
|
Definition
| substance that promotes the activity of a neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| drug that reduces the action of a neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
| What are the different ways a drug can have its effects at the synapse? |
|
Definition
| antagonist(botulin, curare) or agonist(nictotine, blackwidow venom) |
|
|
Term
| What are some examples of drugs that work at these synaptic sites? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does the means of drug administration change the effects of a drug? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the placebo effect? How do we control for it in experiments? |
|
Definition
| The placebo effect refers to the phenomenon of patients perceiving or even actually improving the condition of their medical illness due to a treatment that purportedly is effective, but in reality is a deception or sham. It demonstrates the brain’s role in improvement. In order to control for this, experimenters must also include a control group that does not receive any type of treatment (real or sham) in order to assess for a significant effect. |
|
|
Term
| What neurotransmitter pathways are associated with drug addiction? |
|
Definition
| addictive substnces enhance activity in the dopaminergic nucleus accumbens of the brainstem |
|
|
Term
| What are the different forms of drug tolerance? |
|
Definition
| changes in enzymes, changes at level of sysnapse like receptor density, and learning |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 common features of all sensory systems? |
|
Definition
1. sensory receptors
2. neural relay
3. coding and representation
4. perception |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a condition that produces a mixing of senses |
|
|
Term
| What attributes of a wavelength of light does the visual system sense? How are they perceived? |
|
Definition
| perceived as color by photoreceptors |
|
|
Term
| What are the major differences between rods and cones? |
|
Definition
rods: more numerous, scotopic (night vision), periphery
cones: photopic, color, fovea |
|
|
Term
What are antagonistic center-surround receptive fields? How do they affect bipolar, ganglion and cortical
cells? |
|
Definition
a characterisitic of visual interneuron recptive fields, in which light illuminating the center has the opposite effect on the cells activity as light in the surround
bipolar: hyperpolarize "off"
ganglion: fewer action potentials
cortical:simple depends on outer of receptive field to produce more acton potentials |
|
|
Term
| What are the different types of cells in the ganglion? How do they differ from one another? |
|
Definition
magnocellular M cells: sensitive to low contrast and movement
parvocallular: 90%, sensitive to high contrast
koniocellular: 5% similar to P cells but sensitive to blue lights rather than red and green |
|
|
Term
Know the pathway of visual information from the eye to the thalamus. What deficits arise when the pathway is
disrupted along the way? |
|
Definition
severing optic nerve blacks right vis field
severing optic chiasm blacks left half of left and right of right vis field
severing optic tract blacks left halves of left and right |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the superior colliculus? |
|
Definition
| guides movements of the eyes and head toward newly detected objects in visual field |
|
|
Term
| What is the general organization of the LGN? |
|
Definition
| (Lateral geniculate nucleus) a layered structure that is bent in the middle |
|
|
Term
| What are the general features of cortical simple and complex cells? |
|
Definition
simple cortical cells respond to stimuli shape
complex cortical cells detect lines moving in a particular direction |
|
|
Term
| What is a cortical module? function of each of its components? |
|
Definition
a unit of primary visual cortex containing two sets of ocular dominance columns, 16 blobs, and two hypercolumns.
OCD: responds to input from either left or right eye (not both)
blobs: process color information
hypercolumns: complete set of orientation columns (180) that responds to lines of same angle |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the ventral and dorsal streams respectively? Where do each of them go after V2? |
|
Definition
ventral: "what" object recognition. > IT inferior temporal lobe
dorsal: "where" movement, coordination. > MT medial temporal lobe |
|
|
Term
| How do we perceive color and depth in the visual system? |
|
Definition
color: trichromatic theory. 3 color sensitive photoreceptors S,M,L
opponent processing theory: opposite colors
depth: stereoscopic vision, binocular disparity, |
|
|
Term
| What are myopia and hyperopia? |
|
Definition
nearsighted
hyper: farsighted |
|
|
Term
| What attributes of a sound-wave does the auditory system sense? How are they perceived and measured? |
|
Definition
frequency, amplitude, complexity
number of cycles per unit time (Hz), low=low pitch, high=high pitch
intensity (dB)
timbre |
|
|
Term
| What are the primary functions of the outer, middle and inner ear? |
|
Definition
outer: 1)catches soundwaves and deflects them to external ear canal
middle: 2)waves amplified and directed to ear drum causing vibrations, 3) vibrates ossicles, 4)ossciles amplify and convey to oval window
inner: 5) waves push the round window in and out.. moving fluid producing movement of basilar membrane. transduction |
|
|
Term
| How are the sensory receptors of the auditory system activated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are place and frequency theory? |
|
Definition
Place theory
Wave in cochlea matches frequency
For _ above 4,000 Hz
Frequency theory
Firing rates of cells
For _ below 4,000 Hz |
|
|
Term
| How do we localize sound? |
|
Definition
Differential arrival times of sound at each ear
Biaurnal neurons: specialized neurons in the superior olive sensitive to this disparity
Increased firing when info from each ear arrives simultaneously
Decreases as difference grows |
|
|
Term
| what are the components of the vestibular system? |
|
Definition
| otolith organs, semicircular canals |
|
|
Term
| What is a homunculus? Why does it look so different from ourselves? |
|
Definition
Homunculi (‘little men’)
Show the relative sensitivity of different body parts
Regions with small dense receptive fields get a larger area of cortical representation |
|
|
Term
Where is pain processed in the brain? Why is pain perceived differently depending on the individual and the
context of the painful situation? |
|
Definition
To the primary somatosensory cortex
Physical perception of pain
To the anterior cingulate cortex
Emotional perception of pain |
|
|
Term
| What are the different classes of axon? How do they differ? |
|
Definition
Aβ: fat axons, quick transmission
Aδ: slimmer axons, slower transmission
C fibers: slim axons, slow transmission |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| structures found within the olfactory bulbs |
|
|
Term
| what is phenylthiocarbomide (PTC) and how it is differentially detected. |
|
Definition
toxin with bitter taste
gene for PTC receptor has various forms, alleles, some for strong taste, mild, or none. dominant |
|
|
Term
| Know how a neuron activates a muscle at the neuromuscular junction. |
|
Definition
| action potential.. AcH released from presynaptic terminal causing Na to enter postsynaptic membrane (depolarization) |
|
|
Term
| Know how a muscle twitch occurs. |
|
Definition
| The generated action potential travels along the fiber (in all directions |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between fast and slow-twitch muscle fibers? Who would have more of which kind? |
|
Definition
Slow-twitch (extreme athlete)
Postural muscles (back, neck and legs)
Aerobic (oxygen-dependent) metabolism
Endurance activities
Fast-twitch (spinal injury/inactive)
Arms and shoulders
Anaerobic (oxygen-independent) metabolism
Explosive and powerful activities |
|
|
Term
| How does the muscle detect and compensate for changes in stretch and contraction? |
|
Definition
Varied firing rate
Rapid firing = sustained contraction
Recruitment
More and more motor units become activated
Type I first, then IIa and finally IIb
Muscle Spindles
Provide stretch feedback
Golgi Tendon Organs
Provide contraction feedback
Embedded in the muscle
sense information about muscle length
Stretch with the muscle
Muscle spindle stretch activates Aα sensory fibers
Sends feedback information to spine and alpha motor neurons
When the muscle contracts, gamma neurons reset the spindle to be able to sense stretch again |
|
|
Term
| What is a monosynaptic reflex? What is an example? |
|
Definition
| 2 neurons at a single synapse. patellar tendon (knee jerk) |
|
|
Term
| What is a polysynaptic reflex? What is an example? |
|
Definition
| involves more than one synapse, often activates flexor and inhibiting an extensor. eg flexion reflex |
|
|
Term
| Know what type of information is carried by which spinal pathway. |
|
Definition
Lateral pathway
Lateral portion of the spinal cord
Controls voluntary fine movements
Distal body control
Ventromedial pathway
Ventromedial portion of the spinal cord
Controls automatic movements
Proximal body control |
|
|
Term
| What are the basal ganglia? What are their function? |
|
Definition
Collection of subcortical nuclei
Role in movement
Choice and initiation of voluntary movements
Lots of communication with the motor cortex via the thalamus
Output is always inhibitory
Serves as a gate
Either slightly or greatly inhibits a movement
e.g. holding up a finger |
|
|
Term
| What are the steps of initiating a voluntary movement? What cortical area does what? |
|
Definition
Decision to move
Parietal lobe
Prefrontal cortex
Movement planning
Supplementary motor areas
Input from basal ganglia
Primary motor cortex
Motor plan is sent to the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| What is Parkinson’s disease? How is it treated? |
|
Definition
Progressive neurodegeneration
3 cardinal motor symptoms
Bradykinesia
Rigidity
Tremor
Additional motor symptoms
Postural instability
Gait disturbances
Non-motor symptoms
Drug and surgical treatments: Levodopa, DBS, Transplantation, Gene therapy |
|
|
Term
| What is Huntington’s disease? What brain areas are affected? |
|
Definition
Huntington’s Disease
Progressive neurodegeneration
Chorea
involuntary, jerky movements
cognitive symptoms
Genetic mutation
chromosome 4. Basal ganglia and cortical dysfunction
No cure or effective treatments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nociceptors (free nerve endings) |
|
|
Term
| vestibular system function |
|
Definition
provides information about the position and movement of the head
otolith and semicircular
(hair cells within the saccle, utricle, and semicircular canals) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| basilar membrane/hair cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| vp nucleus of the thalamus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
