1. unicellularity

2. variable cell size, greater range than eukaryotes

3. single circular chromosomes

4. no nucleus (nucleoid region)

5. plasmids

6. asexual

7. simple cell structure (no membrane bound organelles)

8. diverse metabolic systems (chemoautotrophs, aerobic, anaerobic)

prokaryotes can form adhesive matrices

all unicellular which look like multicellular organism but its actually multiple species of bacteria finding agregates that are grouped together

genetic elements that can be transferred between prokaryotic cells (horizontal gene transfer)

part of mobilomes

outside of genome/genetic material

can move in/out of cell

1. bacteria

2. archaea

3. eukarya

archaea closer related to eukaryotes

mechanism of DNA replication

RNA polymerase enzyme similarity

bacteria

paraphyletic

species that live in extremely high temperatures

Taq - PCR - DNA fingerprinting

gram positive bacteria

pathogenic - disease-causing (staphylococcus, streptococcus, clostridium botulinum)

GMO

gram positive

dental plaque

manufacture of antibiotics

1. firmicutes

2. actinobacteria

major pathogens - lyme's disease

anaerobic, free living

distinct morphology - spiral shaped with unique flagella

first photosynthesizing organisms

marine/freshwater

altered atmosphere, create large amounts of free oxygen - wiping out oxygen-intolerant life forms

ancestor to chloroplasts

1. bacteria

2. archaea bacteria

3. protists

4. plantae

5. fungi

6. animalia

domain eukarya

kingdom animalia

phylum chordata

class mammalia

order primates

family hominidae

genus homo

species sapiens

prokaryotic cells

kingdom bacteria - bacteria/cyanobacteria

prokaryotic cells

diff from bacteria: genome, cell wall

live under extreme conditions (heat, salinity, acidity)

kingdom archaebacteria

bacteria

first to populate new habitats

anaerobic

energy from inorganic compounds (C from CO2)

bacteria

chalk layers produced by trapping and binding of calcium carbonate in sediments by living bacteria

look likes rocks but are living colonies of bacteria

chemical transformations

can digest crude oil, synthesize vitamins, produce antibiotics

dioxin

1. autotroph (self feeders)

2. heterotroph (fed by others)

1. photoautotroph - light (CO2) - photosynthetic prokaryotes

2. chemoautotroph - inorganic chemicals (CO2) - certain prokaryotes

1. photoheterotroph - light (organic compounds) - certain prokaryotes

2. chemoheterotroph - organic compounds (organic compounds) - many prokaryotes, protists, fungi, animals, some plants

evolution

structural order

ability to respond to environmental stimuli

homeostasis

metabolism (process energy)

grow/develop

reproduction

organisms with eukaryotic cells (cells with a nucleus)

kingdom animalia, plantae, fungi, protista

all living organisms without a nuclear membrane

bacteria and archae differ in DNA sequences

oldest known living organisms are bacteria (3.4 bya)

2.7 bya

takes energy from sunglight (photoautotroph) and carbon from CO2 (chemoautotroph) and electrons from inorganic sources to make O2

evovled from anaerobic bacteria

photoautotroph - generates oxygen

prokaryote

2.7 bya

2.7-2.2 bya

cyanobacteria probs helped

oxidation of iron containing rocks

1. nitrogen fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes

2. nitrogen fixing soil bacteria

3. decomposers (aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and fungi)

4. nitrifying bacteria (convert ammonium to nitrites)

5. nitrifying bacteria (convert nitrites to nitrates)

6. denitrifying bacteria (convert nitrates to atmospheric nitrogen)

1. bubonic plague (14th and 17th century; Pasteurella pestis)

2. lyme disease (ticks)

3. dependent on strain (E. coli can be pathogenic or beneficial)

after existence of atmospheric oxygen

1.2 bya (oldest protist fossil known)

1. unicellular bacteria engulfs other bacteria

2. engulfed bacteria becomes organelles in host cell

explains great diversity of protists

endosymbiosis evolved many times

1. mitochondria - from another bacteria

2. plastids - another type of bacteria

3. nucleus

4. nuclear genome - derived from host bacteria

1. starts with prokaryote (nucleoid region, cytoplasm, plasma membrane)

2. infolding of plasma membrane causes endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear envelope, and nucleus to form (cell with nucleus and endomembrane system)

3. engulf aerobic hetertrophic prokaryote (mitochondrion) - this is ancestral heterotrophic eukaryote

4. engulf photosynthetic prokaryote in some cells (plastids) - this is ancestral photsynthetic eukaryote

1. first evolved eukaryotic organisms

2. eukaryotic organisms (organelles, nucleus, etc.)

3. extremely diverse

4. paraphyletic taxon - doesnt contain all species descended from most common ancestor 

4. single celled or multicelled

5. evolved from endosymbiosis of two/more kinds of prokaryotes (bacteria)

6. reproduce asexually/sexually

1. algae

2. seaweed

3. slime molds

4. protozoa

parasitic protist Plasmodium 

mosquito injects protist sporozoites into human which enter liver and reproduce asexually releasing merozoites into bloodstream; merozoites multiply inside red blood cells and released; some develop into gametocytes which are ingested by uninfected mosquito; gametocytes develop into gametes and reproduce sexually forming sporozoites

flagellated protist

contaminate water, food, or hands with infective cysts; humans digest; cyst contains Trophozotes which cause diarrhea (passed in stool but dont survive in environment)

only drug approved for treating of giardiasis is furazolidone

parasitic protist Trypanosoma 

carried by Tsetse fly and infects mammals by sucking blood; causes extreme lethargy/fatigue

free living freshwater protist

main features: cilia, two nuclei, many specialized organelles

feeds mainly on bacteria - cilia moves food into cell mouth where engulfed by phagocytosis

food vacuole combine with lysosomes - as food digested, vacuoles follow looping path, first to anterior end, ending with posterior end

undigested contents of food vacuole released when vacuole fuses with specialized region of plasma membrane (act as anal pore)

constantly takes in water by osmosis

photosynthetic, unicellular protists

exists in photic zone (sunlite zones)

double shells made of opaline silica (concentrate dissolved silica)

base of marine/freshwater food chains

algal protist - brown algae

seaweed

1. fungi (develop from chitinous spores)

2. plants (develop from embryo/seed)

3. animals (develop from blastula)

proposed by Copeland

giant kep are not protists but a part of a new kingdom Protoctista (multicellular and single cellular organisms that resemble ancestors)

multicellularity evolved many times from unicellular protists - brown kelp more closely related to unicellular protist than other large algae

protist

wrap fro sushi - NORI

protists with fine hairs on flagella

diatoms, brown algae, golden algae, water molds

most have 2 flagella: one covered with fine, stiff hairs (larval zoospore stage) and a shorter one that is smooth

protist ancestors to kingdom animalia

single cell predator

form chitinous spores

chitinous cell walls

absorptive nutritional mode

460 mya

DNA more simliar to animalia than plantae

has a dikaryotic stage

aquatic flagellated unicellular protist

probs resemble zoospore stage of chytrid

ancestor has single posterior flagellum, fungi has absorptive nutrition and chitin cell walls

fungi

animals

choanoflagellate protists

all three derived from common ancestor (on phylogenetic tree)

polysaccharide containing nitrogen

cellulose in plant walls vs. chitin in fungus walls yet more similar to k. animalia than k. plantae

used in exoskeleton of arthopods (insects) and surgical thread which decomposes after wound heals

1. plants and fungi probs colonized land together

2. earliest terrestrial ecosystems dependent on fungi as decomposers and symbionts

3. mutualistic (absorb nutrients from host but host benefits as it gets a greater nutrient uptake)

4. parasitic

mutualistic symbiont between fungi and roots

enhance absorption of minerals

nitrogen cycles

decomposing food - common mold Rhizopus

secretes exoenzymes

absorb small oranic molecules

chemoheterotrophs

cap

gills (located under cap)

mycellium (spaghetti like strands under root/stalk)

composed of hyphae (small filaments)

fungal mycelium begins with germination of a fungal spore in a suitable habitat

thin hyphae make up a mycelium

reproductive structure (cap) - produce tiny cells or spores

mutualistic symbiont

3 forms: Parmelia - foliose (flattened, leaflike); Ramalina - fructicose (shrublike); Lecanora and Bacidia - crustose (paint smearlike)

symbiosis of photosynthetic microorganism held in fungal hyphae mesh

is a photosynthetic organism/fungus

asexual and sexual reproduction

break down rock physically and chemically (soredia are fungus and algae fragment)

predatory

hyphae adapted for trapping/killing prey

portions of hyphae are modified as hoops that constrict around nematodes (roundworms) - the fungus penetrates prey with hyphae and digests inner tissues

athlete's foot

valley fever - dust gets into lungs and kills you

powdery mildew

mushrooms

truffles

highly variable in coloration

difficult to identify

poisonous effects delayed so treatment is impossible

people have diff sensitivities to the toxis produced

parasitic fungus

causing worldwide decline of amphibians (absorbs water from skin of frogs; frogs get water through semi permeable skin)

eco-tourism introducing chytrid fungi to remote ecosystems

oldest fungal group

flagellated stage contains motile zoospores

link to animals

aquatic

some parasitic, some symbiotic relationships with plants

Phytophthora ramorum (same genus as potato famine fungus)

becoming more prevalent due to global climate change - many species of oak killed

spread through an accidental shipment of contaminated nursery stock

Phytophthora infestans

fungal pathogen oomycetes

killed over one million irish and emigration of one million

rots potato from the inside out, rots potato leaves

fungus, division basidiomycota

Armillaria ostoyae - shoestring rot

root rot for forest trees

605 tons

yeast

flagellated gametangia of chytrids

single most fundamental part of the body

forms mycelium (mass of connected hyphae)

2 types - with or without septa (divisions that makes separations)

haustoria (tip of a parasitic fungus that penetrates host tissue while still remaining outside of the host cell membrane) parasitize plant cells

results in plants not growing

mildew

with chitinous spores

asexually or sexually

suspended in air for long time and travel widely

flagellated, unicellular protist

closely realted to animals (opisthokons with posterior flagellum)

diverged from animals 1.5 bya

oldenst fossil fungi 460 mya

two mating types: positive or negative

plasmogamy forms zygosporania (resistant to freezing/drying - form during deteriorating conditions)

non-septate mycelium

causes valley fever (very resistent to environmental extremes, found in dry soils of desert, form during dry/cold season)

formerly classified as zygomycetes

ARM - arbuscular mycorrhizae (endomycorrhizae; hyphae enter root cells and branch into arbuscules)

flowerlike, branch into different components of plant root cells; fungus grows in the structure of root cell themselves

cup fungi, morels, truffles, yeast, half species of lichen, dutch elm disease, chestnut blight

asexual reproduction produces conidia (naked spores)

fruiting bodies: ascocarps contain asci which contain the sexually formed spores ascospores

8 ascospores per ascus

chain reaction in release of spores from asci

forms cup/bowl-like structures

beneficial as food for humans, detrimental for trees

mushrooms

importnat in decay process, crop disease

fruiting body: basidiocarp

generalized fungal life cycle

asexual

1. spores

2. germination

3. mycelium

4. spore-producing structures

generalized fungal life cycle

sexual 

1. mycelium

2. plasmogamy (fusion of cytoplasm - 2 separate nuclei of 2 or more hyphae)

3. heterokaryotic/dikaryotic stage (not a diploid, still haploid but with diploid nucleus)

4. karyogamy (fusion of nuclei - only diploid stage)

5. zygote is formed from karyogamy

6. goes through meisosis (back to haploid)

7. spore-producing

8. spores

9. germination

1. positive and negative mating

2. plasmogamy yields dikaryotic mycelium

3. basidiocarp (dikaryotic is n+n) - gills lined with basidia

4. karyogamy yields diploid (2n) nuclei

5. meiosis yields basidium containing 4 haploid nuclei and basidium wiht 4 appendages

6. basidiospores are dispersed and germinated

7. leads to haploid mycelia

1. positive and negative type mating

2. creates gametangia with haploid nuclei

3. plasmogamy creates young zygosporangium (heterokaryotic) which matures into a zygosporangia (heterokaryotic)

4. karyogamy leads to diploid nuclei

5. meiosis leads to sporangium - spores are dispersed and germinated - some become mycelia for sexual, others become mycelium for sporangia (asexual)

1. lack of water

2. potentially damaging UV light

3. extreme temperatures

4. no buoyancy (gas environment doesnt support multicellular organism's tissue/structure)

1. nutrient-rich soil

2. few consumers or pathogens

3. no/sparse competition

evolved from green alga

500 mya

generalized life cycle of fungi

sexual (pic)

generalized life cycle of fungi

asexual (pic)