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| Organizes the chemistry of life; two types: Catabolic & Anabolic |
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| The totality of an organism's chemical reactions; A metabolic pathways begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product |
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| pathways involved in degradation; release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds |
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| pathways involved in synthesis; consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones; sometimes called biosynthetic pathways |
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| the energy that an object possesses because of its structure or position |
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| the relative motion of objects |
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| First Law of Thermodynamics |
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| Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be destroyed (the energy of the universe is constant) |
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| Second Law of thermodyanmics |
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| every energy transfer or transformation makes the universe more disordered (every process increases entropy) |
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| the quantitative measure of disorder or randomness |
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| the portion of energy available to do work |
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| Free Energy = Enthalpy - Temp(Entropy) |
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| Exergonic Chemical Reactions |
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| Emit energy when they occur |
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| Endergonic Chemical Reactions |
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| Require input of energy to occur |
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| Adenosine triphosphate; powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions; 3 phosphate groups connected to ribose |
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| Water is removed from ATP; energy is released, because a high-energy bond is broken |
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| If the change in free energy for an endergonic reaction is less than the amount of energy released by ATP hydrolysis, then the 2 reactions can be coupled so that overall, the reactions are exergonic |
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| biological catalysts; speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers; most are proteins; highly specific for the chemicals they act on |
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| substances that speed up the rates of chemical reactions but are not themselves used up or altered |
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| energy required to reach transition state (uphill part of reaction) |
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| A molecule that reacts with the help of the enzyme |
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| Area of enzyme that specifically binds and reacts with the substrate |
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| binding the substrate causes a change in shape of the enzyme to bring specific functional groups into place |
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| inorganic (non-carbon) molecules; can be bound tightly to the enzyme as permanent residents, or bound loosely and reversibly, like the substrate |
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| if the cofactor is an organic molecule; vitamins are often either these, or they are the material from which these are made |
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| reduce enzymatic activity by blocking substrates from entering the active sites; often resemble the substrate and compete for access to the active site; called mimics |
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| Noncompetitive Inhibitors |
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| Do not directly compete with the substrate for access to the active site; bind a different part of the enzyme and causes a conformational change in the enzyme that affects the active site |
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| Occurs when a metabolic pathway is turned off by the binding of the end product to an enzyme that acts in the earlier stages of the pathway |
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| the partial degradation of sugars that occurs without the use of oxygen; both the electron donor and the electron acceptor are organic compounds |
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| an ATP-producing pathway in which the ultimate electron acceptor is an inorganic molecule, usually oxygen |
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| the most common and efficient catabolic pathway; the reactants are an organic fuel and O2; performed by cells of most eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms |
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| performed by some prokaryotes, and involves a similar pathway in which O2 is replaced by some other substance |
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| Chemical reactions which involve a partial or complete transfer of electrons from one reactant to another; release energy when electrons move closer to electronegative atoms |
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| the loss of electrons from one substance |
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| the gain or addition of electrons to a substance; called this because it reduces the amount of positive charge in that atom |
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| Pulling an electron away from an atom requires energy; the more electronegative an atom is, the more energy is required to take an electron away from it |
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| Multi-step pathway that takes place in the cytosol; breaks one glucose molecule into 2 pyruvate molecules; literally means "sugar-splitting," and involve the dividing of a 6-carbon sugar into two 3-carbon sugars; these smaller sugars are oxidized and the remaining atoms are arranged to form 2 molecules of pyruvate; can occur whether oxygen is present or not; however, if oxygen is present, then the chemical energy stored in pyruvate and NADH can be extracted by the Kreb's cycle and oxidative phosphorylation |
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| Energy-investment phase of glycolysis |
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| Uses cellular ATP to phosphorylate glycolysis intermediates; costs two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose |
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| Energy-yielding phase of glycolysis |
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| Produces ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation; yields 4 ATP molecules per glucose; reduces 2 molecules of NAD+ to NADH per molecule of glucose; also results in 2 pyruvate molecules and 2 molecules of water |
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| Substrate-Level Phosphorylation |
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| ATP production by direct enzymatic transfer of phosphate from an intermediate substrate in catabolism to ATP |
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| Glucose + 2NAD+ +2ATP --> 2pyruvates + 2NADH + 2H+ +2ATP + 2H2O |
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| Summary equation for glycolysis |
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occurs when the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotes, within the cytosol of prokaryotes, oxidizes a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide; Since glycolysis releases less than 25% of the chemical energy stored in a glucose molecule, the majority of the energy still exists within the 2 molecules of pyruvate; the oxidation of glucose is completed during this syccle and occurs within the mitochondrion of eukaryotic cells, and within the cytosol of prokaryotes
1) removal of CO2 from pyruvate molecules
2) the remaining 2-carbon fragment is oxidized, forming acetate, and electrons are transferred to NAD+, storing energy as NADH
3) Coenzyme A (CoA) is attached to the acetate by a very unstable bond |
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| The unstable bond betwen CoA and acetate makes the acetyl group very reactive; because of this, acetyl CoA has very high potential energy, meaning that the reaction of acetyl CoA to produce lower energy products are very exergonic |
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| Where's all the energy in cellular respiration? |
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| a group of proteins in the inner membrane of the mitochondria that uses the energy from redox reactions to synthesize ATP; located in the inner mitochondria membrane; accepts electrons from reduced coenzymes; at every transfer, the electrons are passed to a more electronegative atom, then they are passed to oxygen; thousands of copies of these chain molecules exist within each mitochondrion; most components of the chain are proteins, that exist in multi-protein complexes number I-IV; bound to these protein complexes are prosthetic groups |
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| non-protein components that are essential for enzyme function |
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| iron-containing proteins that can take part in redox reactions; often part of electron transport chains |
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| Oxidative Phosphorylation |
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| the production of ATP that is coupled to the exergonic transfer of electrons from food to oxygen |
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| The energy-coupling mechanism; the coupling of the movement of ions down a gradient to the production of ATP |
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| The enzyme along the inner membrane of mitochondria that actually produces ATP; multi-subunit complex that uses the energy of the existing proton gradient to power ATP syntehsis; protons bind to the rotor, causing it to spin, catalyzing ATP production; for every proton that crosses back into the mitochondrial matrix, one ATP is synthesized by ATP synthase |
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Pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps; regenerates the NAD needed for glycolysis to continue
1) CO2 is released from pyruvate, which is converted to acetaldehyde
2) acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol |
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| Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate; no CO2 is released; this is the same process that is used in the dairy industry to make cheese and yogurt |
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| An enzyme that catalyzes an early step in glycolysis is a key regulatory point in glycolysis |
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| transforms light energy trapped by chloroplasts into chemical bond energy and stores that energy in sugar and other organic molecules; synthesis of energy-rich organic molecules from energy-poor molecules; uses CO2 as a carbon source and light-energy as the energy source; directly or indirectly, supplies energy to most living organisms |
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| organisms which sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other living things; produce their food from CO2 and other inorganic materials from the environment |
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| live on compounds produced by other organisms; these are the consumers in the environment |
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| found within the inner tissue of plants; stores chlorophyll |
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| tiny pores in plants that allow CO2 to enter and O2 to leave |
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| 6CO2 + 12H2O + Light energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O |
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| Solar energy is converted to chemical energy; water is split, providing a source of electrons and protons; O2 is released as a by-product; also uses chemiosmosis to power the addition the addition of a phosphate group to ADP, making ATP; no sugar is produced; occurs during the Calvin Cycle |
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| Incorporates CO2 from the atmosphere into organic molecules already present within the chloroplast; reduces these carbons to carbohydrates by adding electrons provided by NADPH, which received these electrons during the light reaction; also uses ATP generated during the light reaction to accomplish this; the synthesis of sugar that occurs here requires electrons from NADPH and energy in the form of ATP |
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| Travels in rhythmic waves and disturbs electric and magnetic fields; example: light |
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| discrete particles; has a fixed quantity of energy that is inversely proportional to the wavelength |
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| When white light hits an object, the color we see is the most reflected or transmitted by these in that object; example: chlorophyll |
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| the pigment that participates in the light reaction |
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| the light-harvesting complexes of the thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts; 2 kinds: PS-I and PS-II |
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| its Chlorophyll A absorbs light best at 700 nm |
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| Its Chlorophyll A absorbs light best at 680 nm |
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| much higher energy level molecule than water, meaning its electrons are more readily available for the reactions of the Calvin Cycle |
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| The flow of electrons creates a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, which is used to synthesize ATP by chemiosmosis; uses PSI, but not PSII; the electrons cycle back from ferredoxin to the cytochrome complex, and from there they continue to P700 in PSI; there is no production of NADPH, and no release of oxygen; ATP is generated |
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