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| A large molecule consisting of many identical or similar subunits connected together |
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| A subunit (or building block) of a polymer |
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| The bonding of many small subunits (monomers) to form long molecules (polymers) |
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| A polymerization reaction in which the covalent linkage of the monomers is accompanied by the removal of a water molecule, which creates a chemical bond (requiring energy) |
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| The breaking of the covalent bond between two monomers by the addition of water (produces energy) |
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| Used as fuels and building material; organic molecules made of sugars and their polymers; three types (Monosaccharide, Disaccharide, Polysaccharide) |
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| What do carbohydrates contain? |
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| Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, which occur in the ratio 1-2-1 |
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| a covalent bond formed by a dehydration synthesis between two sugar monomers |
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| Macromolecules that are polymers of a few hundred or thousand monosaccharides; for energy storage and structural support |
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| A glucose polymer that is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants |
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| A glucose polymer that is used as a storage polysaccharide in animals; stored in the muscle and liver of vertebrates |
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| A process by which athletes are able to double or triple the amount of glycogen stored in their muscles; used to delay the onset of muscle fatigue |
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| Every ounce of glycogen in the body can have as much as four ounces of water bound to it; losing glycogen causes this extra water to be lost as well |
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| A linear un-branched polymer of glucose; a structural polysaccharide; most abundant organic molecule on the planet; reinforces plant cell walls because hydrogen bonds hold the strands together |
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| Structural polysaccharide that is a polymer of an amino sugar; forms the exoskeleton of arthropods; found in the cell walls of some fungi |
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| Mostly hydrophobic molecules with diverse functions; made up of fatty acids; a diverse group of organic molecules that are insoluble in water, but will dissolve in nonpolar solvents |
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| Fats store enormous amounts of energy, so humans have evolved an extremely strong taste preference for foods that are high in fats |
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| "Fake fat" designed to be similar to fats in taste and texture; cannot be digested by humans; has 8 fatty acids attached to a molecule of sucrose, rather than being a triglyceride with 3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol; because the molecule is so complex in shape, your body's digestive chemicals can't grab onto it and break it down, so it passes through your digestive system without being digested |
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| stored in adipose tissue cells; insulates the body and protects vital organs |
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| Have as many hydrogens attached to them as possible; solid at room temperature; ex.: butter, lard |
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| Have at least 1 carbon-carbon double bond; liquid at room temperature; ex.: olive oil |
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| Have 2 ends that behave differently in water (hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails); in water, they self-assemble into a bi-layer that shields their hydrophobic portion from the water |
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| Class of lipids that includes many hormones; characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings with various functional groups attached; includes cholesterol |
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| A component of animal cell membranes; used as a molecular precursor for many steroids |
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| Class of lipids that store and transmit information; made up of nucleotides; made up of a 5-carbon sugar, nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group; G,A,T,C; sugars (ribose, deoxyribose) |
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| How many hydrogen bonds are in DNA? |
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Definition
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| How many hydrogen bonds are in RNA? |
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| Poly-amino acids that are held together by peptide bonds; have amino acids as monomers |
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| Monomers of proteins; Nonpolar, Polar, or Charged |
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| Primary Protein Structure |
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| the specific sequence of amino acids in a particular protein; any changes in this structure result in changes in all the remaining levels of structure |
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| Secondary Protein Structure |
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| Repeated polypeptide segments that are coiled or folded into patterns; the result of hydrogen bonding between the components of the amino acid backbone |
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| Tertiary Protein Structure |
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| The overall 3-dimensional shape of a polypeptide that results from interactions between the side-chains of the various amino acids; can also involve hydrophobic interactions at the core of the polypeptide; the hydrophobic effect is responsible for protein folding |
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| Tend to cluster together in the inside of a folded protein, away from water |
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| Some proteins consist of two or more polypeptide subunits; The aggregation pattern of these subunits |
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| Why does compartmental organization exist within a cell? |
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| To isolate reactions so that they may occur without interference from incompatible metabolic processes elsewhere in the cell |
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| What are chromosomes composed of? |
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| What does chromatin consist of? |
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| Composed of rRNA and protein; main function is protein synthesis |
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| Ribosomes suspended in the cytosol |
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| Ribosomes that are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope |
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| Extensive network of membranes in eukaryotic cells that is continuous with the nuclear envelope |
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| contains ribosomes on the outer surface; site of secretory protein synthesis |
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| Stores and modifies products of the E.R. before sending them to their appropriate destination in the cell |
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| A polypeptide chain that is assembled to a ribosome bound to the rough E.R. and inserts itself into the rough E.R. through a pore; it is folded into its native shape inside the rough E.R. and in most cases, a carbohydrate is covalently bonded to it |
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| outer surface that lacks ribosomes; synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and poisons; important for steroid production; important in liver cells for detoxification; adds (OH) group to toxins, making them water soluble, easier to flush from the body |
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| the Cis face of the Golgi apparatus |
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| Receives vesicles from the E.R. |
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| the Trans face of the Golgi Apparatus |
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| Ships vesicles to the appropriate destination |
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| Organelles consisting of hydrolytic enzymes used to digest large molecules; very acidic environment; used to digest food and recycle cellular materials |
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| Used as a disposal site for metabolic byproducts; prevents accumulation of dangerous molecules |
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| Site of cellular respiration, where ATP is generated from sugars, fats, and proteins with the help of oxygen |
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| Site of photosynthesis; only found in plants and algae; convert solar energy to chemical energy by manufacturing sugars from CO2 and water |
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| Contain chlorophyll, as well as enzymes that catalyze the reactions that occur during photosynthesis; found in leaves, and other green parts of plants |
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| Groups of flattened, stacked, interconnected sacs |
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| fluid within the chloroplast; contains DNA, enzymes, and ribosomes |
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| Contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct; often used to break down fatty acids into smaller molecules to be used as fuel for mitochondria during cellular respiration; help remove toxins and break down fatty acids |
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| Composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments; determines cell motility |
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| S.J. Singer & G. Nicolson |
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Definition
| proposed that membrane proteins are dispersed, individually inserted into the phospholipid bilayer with their hydrophilic regions protruding; Fluid Mosaic Model |
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| penetrate the hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer; many are transmembrane proteins |
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| Span the entire membrane; others are just embedded into the core |
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| Provide a hydrophilic channel that is selective for a particular solute; or undergo conformational changes to shuttle a substance from one side of the membrane to the other |
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| Diffusion across a membrane with the help of transport proteins |
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| Water channel proteins that facilitate the movement of water across biological membranes; very common in kidney cells |
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| Open or close in response to a stimulus |
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| Activated by chemical messengers such as hormones or neurotransmitters |
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| Activated by changes in electrical membrane potential |
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| The property of biological membranes which allows some substances to cross more easily than others |
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| The process in which a substance moves from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration; a process of spreading molecules out evenly into the available space |
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| Solution with greater concentration of solute compared to another solution |
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| Solution with lower concentration of solute compared to another solution |
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| Solution with an equal concentration of solute compared to another solution |
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| The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration, diluting it, until there is equal concentration of solute on both sides of the membrane |
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| Water rushes inward until it causes the cell to burst |
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| Water rushes out of the cell and it shrinks |
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| Ideal for animal cells; Water moves equally in both directions |
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| a condition where a single molecule has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions |
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| Said that the difference between the two sides of a phospholipid bilayer could be accounted for if the membrane were coated on both sides with hydrophilic proteins |
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| May have its active site exposed to a substrate in either the cytosol, or the extracellular fluid; several of these can be situated next to each other within the membrane so as to accomplish a central task |
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| Signal Transduction Proteins |
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| Usually a receptor with a binding site for a chemical messenger called a ligand; the ligand can, in some cases, initiate a conformational change that relays, or transduces, the signal to the inside of the cell |
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| Cell-Cell Recognition Proteins |
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| Certain glycoproteins that serve as "i.d. tags" and docking sites for proteins on other cells |
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| An adaptation to control the water balance in organisms living in hypertonic, hypotonic, or terrestrial environments |
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| in animals; is an electrogenic pump that translocates 3 Na+ ions out of the cell, for every 2 K+ ions into the cell |
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| a transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane; uses active transport to create a membrane potential |
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| Secretion of macromolecules |
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| The process by which cells take in material |
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| Endocytosis of solid particles |
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| The endocytosis of fluid droplets |
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| Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis |
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Definition
| common occurrence in brain; antidepressants |
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