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Bio 118 Final
Final Exam
133
Biology
Undergraduate 1
12/10/2008

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Term
Mitochondria
Definition
Cellular organelles responsible for oxidative metabolism and phosphorylation in eukaryotic cells, widely believed to have originated as a symbiotic bacterium.
Term
Ribosome
Definition
A small cytoplasmic organelle that is the site of mRNA translation, thus protein synthesis.
Term
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
A series of connected flattened sacs that plays a central role in the synthesis and export of proteins and glycoproteins and is best studied in the secretory cells specialized in these functions.
Term
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
Allows increased surface area for the action or storage of key enzymes and the products of these enzymes.
Term
Centrosome
Definition
The main microtubule organizing center of the cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression.
Term
Golgi Body
Definition
Processes and packages the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell. It is particularly important in the processing of proteins for secretion. The Golgi apparatus forms a part of the endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells.
Term
Lysosome
Definition
Cytoplasmic cell organelle which contains enzymes that function in intracellular digestion
Term
Cytoplasm
Definition
A gelatinous, semi-transparent fluid that fills most cells.
Term
Nucleus
Definition
Core of a cell containing DNA and RNA
Term
Nucleolus
Definition
The site of synthesis of rRNA within the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.
Term
Vacuole
Definition
Membrane-bound compartments within some eukaryotic cells that can serve a variety of secretory, excretory, and storage functions.
Term
Photosynthesis
Definition
The process of conversion of water and carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. It takes place in the presence of chlorophyll and is activated by sunlight. During the process oxygen is released.
Term
Krebs Cycle
Definition
A series of enzymatic reactions in mitochondria involving oxidative metabolism of acetyl compounds to produce high-energy phosphate compounds that are the source of cellular energy.
Term
Oögenesis
Definition
The creation of an egg cell.
Term
Antibody
Definition
Protein produced by an organism's immune system in response to an antigen. The antibody combines with the antigen and neutralizes it.
Term
Theory
Definition
A proposed explanation for a very general class of phenomena or observations
Term
Robert Hooke
Definition
First to look at cells
Term
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Definition
Made a higher power microscope (300x)
Term
Louis Pasteur
Definition
Proved that cells arise from cells and not by spontaneous generation
Term
Carl Woese
Definition
Compared small subunit ribosomal RNAs between organisms to understand the evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms.
Term
Phylogenetic Tree
Definition
A chart that shows probable evolutionary relationships.
Term
The Building Blocks of Life
Definition
Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, & Oxygen
Make up 96% of all matter in organisms
Term
Organic Molecule
Definition
A molecule with a carbon bond
Term
Acid
Definition
Proton donor
Term
Base
Definition
Proton acceptor
Term
Denatured
Definition
When a protein is unfolded or folded incorrectly, therefore causing it to not function normally.
Term
Molecular Chaperones
Definition
Proteins that interact and help other proteins fold correctly in cells.
Term
Catalyst
Definition
Any substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change
Term
Enzyme
Definition
Protein catalysts that speed up and control biological reactions. Make reactions that are that are very slow go in minutes or seconds.
Term
Transition State
Definition
A molecule with a combination of old and new bonds
Term
Activation Energy (Ea)
Definition
The energy required to reach the Transition State
Term
Overall Change in Free Energy (∆G)
Definition
Negative for Exergonic Reactions
Positive for Endergonic Reactions
Term
Steps for Enzymatic Reactions
Definition
Initiation, Transition state facilitation, and termination
Term
Initiation
Definition
Reactants bind to the active site in a specific orientation
Term
Substrate Binding
Definition
Induces the formation of the transition state and lowers the activation energy required for the reaction
Term
Competitive Inhibition
Definition
When a molecule of similar size and shape competes with the substrate for active site binding
Term
Allosteric Regulation
Definition
When a regulatory molecule binds to a site on the enzyme other than the active site and either increases or decreases enzyme activity depending on the way in which the enzyme shape changes.
Term
Nucleotide
Definition
Composed of a phosphate group,a sugar, and a nitrogenous base
Term
Purine
Definition
Two-ring nitrogenous bases. Include Adenine and Guamine
Term
Pyrimidine
Definition
One-ring nitrogenous bases. Include Cytosine, Thymine, & Uracil.
Term
Phosphodiester Linkage
Definition
Joins nucleotide monomers between the phosphate group on the 5' carbon of one nucleotide and the –OH group on the 3' carbon of another
Term
Phosphorylation
Definition
Activating a nucleotide by adding two more phosphate groups
Term
James Watson and Francis Crick
Definition
The two scientists that discovered the double helix structure of DNA
Term
Ribozyme
Definition
An RNA enzyme
Term
Carbohydrate
Definition
Contain the generalized chemical formula (CH2O)n. Contain a carbonyl group and several hydroxyl functional groups
Many carbon-hydrogen (C–H) bonds.
Term
Triose
Definition
A monosaccharide with 3 carbon atoms
Term
Pentose
Definition
A monosaccharide with 5 carbon atoms
Term
Hexose
Definition
A monosaccharide with 6 carbon atoms
Term
Polysaccharide
Definition
A chain of monosaccharides
Term
Isomers
Definition
Two molecules that have the same chemical formula but different structures.
Term
Glycosidic Linkage
Definition
A condensation reaction between hydroxyl groups
Term
Peptide bond
Definition
Polymerizes amino acids to proteins
Term
Starch
Definition
A storage polysaccharide in plants that is made of many a-glucose monomers joined by glycosidic bonds
Term
Glycogen
Definition
A storage polysaccharide in animals that is made of many a-glucose monomers joined by glycosidic bonds
Term
Cellulose
Definition
A polymer of b-glucose linked by glycosidic bonds and serve as a plant's cell wall.
Term
Antibiotic
Definition
Kill bacteria by disrupting the formation of the peptide-bonded cross-links within peptidoglycan.
Term
Glycoprotein
Definition
Proteins with covalent bonds to carbohydrates. Used to display cellular identity. Key molecules in cell-cell recognition and cell-cell signaling.
Term
Phosphorylase
Definition
Breaks down glycogen
Term
Plasma Membrane
Definition
A layer of molecules, mostly lipids, that surrounds a cell. It separates the life inside the cell from the external environment and regulates passage of molecules and ions into and out of the cell.
Term
Lipids
Definition
A generic term for carbon-containing compounds that are mostly non-polar and hydrophobic.
Term
Fatty Acid
Definition
A hydrocarbon chain bonded to a carboxyl (COOH) group
Term
Cholesterol
Definition
Starting point for synthesis of many hormones
Term
Phospholipids
Definition
Consist of a 3-carbon glycerol
linked to a phosphate group and two isoprene chains or two fatty acids.
Term
Fat
Definition
A glycerol linked to three fatty acids
Term
Liposome
Definition
An artificial membrane-bound vesicle
Term
Hyptonic Solution
Definition
The solute concentration on the outside lower than on the inside of the cell and the water concentration is lower inside of the cell.
Term
Integral Membrane Proteins (AKA Transmembrane Proteins)
Definition
Proteins that span the membrane
Term
Peripheral Membrane Proteins
Definition
Located on the membrane surface and often attached to the integral membrane protein
Term
Neurotransmitter
Definition
Any of several chemical substances that transmit nerve impulses across a synapse to a postsynaptic element, such as another nerve, muscle, or gland. Includes epinephrine or acetylcholine
Term
Channel Protein
Definition
Membrane protein that selectively allows a specific ion or molecule to cross the membrane by diffusion.
Term
Gramicidin
Definition
Forms a selective ion channel. Makes lipid bilayers permeable to cations, but not anions.
Term
Passive Transport
Definition
Diffusion that requires no energy
Term
Active transport
Definition
The movement of ions or molecules against a concentration gradient or electrochemical gradient that requires ATP.
Term
Na+/K+ -ATPase (AKA Sodium-Potassium Pump)
Definition
Uses ATP to transport Sodium ions into the cell and potassium ions out of the cell.
Term
Cytoskeleton
Definition
Gives the cell shape, aids cell movement, and transports materials within the cell.
Term
Actin Filaments (AKA Microfilaments)
Definition
The smallest cytoskeletal elements that help define the cell's shape. They are long polymers of the globular protein subunit, Actin
Term
Intermediate Filaments
Definition
Fibers wound into thicker cables. They are larger than actin filaments, but smaller than microtubules.
Term
Lamins
Definition
Create a dense mesh under the nuclear membrane, give the nucleus its shape, and anchor the chromosomes.
Term
Microtubules
Definition
Large, hollow tubes made of a- and β-tubulin dimers. They contribute to cell structure, help move the cell and materials inside the cell, and are essential for chromosomal movement in the daughter cells. They also transport vesicles through the cell along microtubule tracks.
Term
Kinesin
Definition
A motor protein that aids in the movement of vesicles along microtubule tracks from the negative end to the positive end.
Term
Flagella
Definition
Long projections that move cells.
Term
Cilia
Definition
Similar to flagella, but much smaller
Term
Axoneme
Definition
A complex 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules connected by bridges and spokes.
Term
Turgor Pressure
Definition
The outward pressure exerted by the fluid contents of a plant cell against the cell wall
Term
Collagen
Definition
The most common protein fiber in the extracellular matrix made of three chains that wind around each other. It is elastic and forms a flexible extracellular layer.
Term
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Definition
Provides structural support for the cell and helps cells stick together.
Term
Integrins
Definition
Transmembrane proteins that link the cytoskeletons within cells directly to the extracellular matrix by binding to the peripheral proteins that are connected to the ECM.
Term
Biofilm
Definition
A group of unicellular organisms that live in close association.
Term
Middle Lamella
Definition
Glues plant cell walls together.
Term
Tight Junctions
Definition
Cell-cell attachments composed of specialized proteins in the plasma membranes of adjacent cells. The proteins line up and bind to each other like the stitching of a quilt.
Term
Desmosomes
Definition
Made of proteins that link the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.
They bind to each other and to the proteins that anchor cytoskeletal intermediate filaments.
Term
Cadherins
Definition
A group of cell adhesion proteins found in plasma membranes that cause cells of the same tissue type to bind together.
Term
Cell-Cell Gaps
Definition
Direct connections between cells in tissues that allow cells to work together.
Term
Plasmodesmata
Definition
Gaps in the cell wall where the plasma membranes, cytoplasm, and smooth ER of two cells connect.
Term
Gap Junctions
Definition
Connect adjacent cells by forming protein-lined channels. They allow the flow of small molecules between cells to coordinate their activities
Term
Metabolism
Definition
All the chemical reactions occurring in a cell or organism. They are powered by respiration and fermentation.
Term
Exergonic
Definition
A reaction in which energy is released and ATP is hydrolyzed.
Term
NADH
Definition
An electron carrier that donates electrons to more oxidized molecules
Term
Glycolysis
Definition
A series of 10 chemical reactions. It is the first step in glucose oxidation. Glucose is broken down into two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate
and the potential energy released is used to phosphorylate ADP. This occurs in the cytosol.
Term
Net Yield of Glycolysis
Definition
2 NADH, 2 ATP, and 2 pyruvate molecules per glucose molecule
Term
Result of complete oxidation of pyruvate in the Krebs Cycle
Definition
10 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 4 ATP molecules
Term
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Definition
ATP production via the proton-motive force and ATP synthase
Term
Chromatin
Definition
A protein-DNA complex
Term
Chromatin Remodeling
Definition
When the DNA near the promoter must be released from tight interactions
Term
Chromatin-Remodeling Complexes
Definition
Protein that reshape chromatin
Term
Epigenetic Inheritance
Definition
Patterns of inheritance that are not due to differences in gene sequences.
Term
Regulatory Sequences
Definition
Sections of DNA that are involved in controlling the activity of genes.
Term
Promoter-Proximal Elements
Definition
Have sequences that are unique to specific genes, providing a mechanism for eukaryotic cells to exert precise control over transcription.
Term
Silencers
Definition
Express gene expression and function in negative control
Term
Enhancers
Definition
Activate transcription. Work in positive control.
Term
Regulatory Transcription Factors
Definition
Bind to enhancers, silencers, and promoter-proximal elements. They regulate gene expression.
Term
Basal Transcription Factors
Definition
Required for transcription, but do not regulate gene expression.
Term
MicroRNAs (miRNAs)
Definition
Tiny, single-stranded RNA molecules
Term
Tumor Suppressor Genes
Definition
Slow down or stop the cell cycle
Term
Proto-Ocnogens
Definition
Genes that trigger specific phases in the cell cycle.
Term
Genetic Engineering
Definition
Manipulation of DNA sequences in organisms
Term
Recombinant DNA Technology
Definition
Techniques used to engineer genes
Term
Biotechnology
Definition
The manipulation of organisms to create products or cure diseases.
Term
Pituitary Dwarfism
Definition
Results from the lack of production of growth hormone encoded by the GH1 gene. It is an autosomal recessive trait. Humans affected by this grow slowly, reaching a maximum adult height of about 4 feet.
Term
Vector
Definition
A vehicle for transferring recombinant genes to a new host
Term
Restriction Endonucleases
Definition
Enzymes that cut DNA at specific base sequences called recognition sites.
Term
Sticky Ends
Definition
The result of restriction endonucleases makung staggered cuts in the DNA.
Term
Transformation
Definition
The process of taking up DNA from the environment and incorporating it into the genome.
Term
Genomic Library
Definition
Made up of cloned DNA fragments representing an entire genome
Term
DNA Probe
Definition
A single-stranded fragment of a known gene that binds a complementary sequence in the sample of DNA being analyzed.
Term
The Steps of PCR
Definition
Denature, Anneal, & Extend
Term
Dideoxy DNA Sequencing
Definition
Determining DNA sequences by putting for different reactions on an electrophoresis gel side-by-side.
Term
Gene Therapy
Definition
The introduction of a gene into affected cells to replace or augment defective copies of the gene with normal alleles.
Term
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)
Definition
A fatal genetic disease whose sufferers have a profoundly weakened immune system
Term
Retrovirus
Definition
Any of a family of single-stranded RNA viruses having a helical envelope and containing an enzyme that allows for a reversal of genetic transcription, from RNA to DNA rather than the usual DNA to RNA
Term
T Cell
Definition
Any of several closely related lymphocytes, developed in the thymus, that circulate in the blood and lymph and orchestrate the immune system's response to infected or malignant cells, either by lymphokine secretions or by direct contact.
Term
Helper T Cells
Definition
Recognize foreign antigen on the surfaces of other cells, then they stimulate B cells to produce antibody and signal killer T cells to destroy the antigen-displaying cells.
Term
Supressor T Cell
Definition
Return the immune system to normal by inactivating the B cells and killer T cells.
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