Pattern: All living things are composed of cells

Process: All cells arise from preexisting cells - NOT SPONTANEOUSLY!

The more electronegative atom poses a stronger attraction and the e^- is closer to that atom.

As a result, the atoms will have partial charges.

Happens with no added input of energy.

Happens when the potential energy of the reactants is higher than the products. Therefore, the reactants will have a lower entropy and the products will have a higher entropy.

ΔG = ΔH -TΔS

Q: Can simple molecules and Kinetic Energy (in the form of heat) lead to chemical evolution?

A: Nonpolar covalent molecules were heated in water, chemical evolution occured and several complex molecules were formed.

Sequence of Amino Acids formed by peptide bonds

*Changes in this primary structure affect protein function

Formed by H-bonding btween backbone muscles.

Has α-helix and β-pleated sheet

As the concentration of the substrate increases, the rate of the reaction increases. Eventually, the rate will plateau at its maximum speed.

Enzymes from different organisms may function best at different temperatures. If the temperature is too low, the reaction will be slower. If it's too high, the protein will be denatured.

The same applies for pH levels.

DNA - deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, ATCG nitrogenous base

RNA - ribose sugar, phosphate, AUCG nitrogenous base

- In the shape of a double helix with only purine-pyrimidine pairs.

- Is an information-containing molecule.

- Can serve as a template so new, complimentary strands can form.

- Anti-parallel strands.

- Single strands form a loop.

- Double strands form a double helix.

- Complimentary pairing can be either with itself or other RNA strands.

- Is both an information containing molecule and a catalytic molecule. Therefore, it can be concluded that the first known life form was made of RNA

aldose - carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon chain

ketose - carbonyl group is in the middle of the carbon chain

α saccharides - C-OH groups face downward

β saccharides - C-OH groups face upward, a bit more stable than α.

1. Location of carbonyl groups

2. Amount of carbons present

3. Spatial arrangement of atoms (Mainly, the positions of -OH can face up or down)

When two monosaccharides join together to form a polysaccharide. This linkage is formed via condensation reaction.

This linkage can vary based on the configuration of the hydroxyl groups (either α or β)

A structural polysaccharide used for structural support in cell walls of plants.

Has parallel strands. β linkages cannot be broken down easily, so it acts as a fiber to help with digestion

Structure - Form fibers to give cells strength and elasticity, via the β-1,4-linkages.

Energy Storing - Carbs have high free energy due to their high potential energy (because of their equal electronegative bonds).

1. Selective barrier (semipermeable membrane)

2. Reactions will be catalyzed due to the increase of concentrations in the cells

Form via condensation reaction - 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 fatty acids will form an ester linkage, otherwise known as a trigyceride

- Source of energy due to C-H bonds in the fatty acids

- Hydrophobic due to their C-H bonds

Amphipathic - Polar head, nonpolar tail

Ex) Steroid - nonpolar isoprene chain and 4 steroid rings, Polar R-group

Micelles - Round

Bilayers - stacked

Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen, (small nonpolar) water and glycerol (small uncharged) can cross the membrane. 

Glucose, Sucrose, (large polar) and ions cannot cross the membrane.

Bond saturation - does the carbon maximize its bonds or does it have double bonds/rings?

Hydrocarbon chain length - long, saturated fats affect fluidity and permeability

Cholesterol - The steroid rings are bulky and will increase the density of its hydrophobic section

Temperature - A higher temperature will cause the lipids to become more fluid and increase permeability