Term
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Definition
| Incoming stimuli (either chemical or physical from an animal's body or the external environment) are converted into neural signals |
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Term
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Definition
Conscious awareness of sensations
NOT all sensations are consciously perceived by an organism |
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Term
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Definition
Recognizes stimulus and initiates signal transduction by creating graded potentials in the same or adjacent cells
Either neurons or specialized epithelial cells |
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Term
| When there is a strong response by the sensory receptor what occurs? |
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Definition
| an action potential is sent to the CNS |
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Term
| What is the strength of the stimulus indicated by? |
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Definition
| It is indicated by the frequency of the action potentials generated. |
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Term
| What does a strong stimulus generate and how does it affect the brain? |
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Definition
| Strong stimulus generates more action potentials in a shorter amount of time causing the brain to interpret the higher frequency of action potentials as a more intense stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
transduce mechanical energy
usually neurons or specialized epithelial cells |
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Term
| Electromagnetic Receptors |
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Definition
| detect radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum |
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Term
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Definition
| respond to visible light energy |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| respond to specific chemicals |
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Term
| Nociceptors/Pain Receptors |
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Definition
| respond to extreme heat, cold, and pressure, as well as to certain molecules such as acids |
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Term
| What are some examples of mechanoreceptors that stretch? |
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Definition
Stretching of the stomach wall is interpreted as fullness.
Stretching in blood vessels provides blood pressure information. |
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Term
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Definition
a type of mechanoreceptor - specialized epithelial cells
Ion channels open or close when bent which changes the membrane potential |
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Term
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Definition
Skin receptor
Senses touch and light pressure
Lies just beneath the skin surface |
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Term
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Definition
Skin receptor
Responds to deep pressure and vibration
Located much deeper beneath the surface of the skin |
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Term
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Definition
Hair cells that detect changes in water currents
Within the lateral line canal system are cilia of hair cells protruding in the cupula structure |
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Term
| What happens when the cupula moves? |
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Definition
| When the cupula moves, cilia bends, and neurotransmitters are released. |
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Term
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Definition
| Ability to detect and interpret sound waves |
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Term
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Definition
| distance from the peak of one sound wave to the next |
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Term
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Definition
| number of complete waves in a second (Hz) |
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Term
| Short wavelengths produce what type of frequencies? |
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Definition
| high frequencies perceived as high pitches or tones |
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Term
| Long wavelengths produce what type of frequencies? |
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Definition
| lower frequencies perceived as lower pitches or tones |
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Term
| 3 Main Compartments of the Mammalian Ear |
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Definition
| Outer ear, Middle ear, and Inner ear |
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Term
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Definition
pinna and auditory canal
separated from middle ear by the ear drum |
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Term
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Definition
| ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes) connect eardrum to oval window |
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Term
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Definition
| cochlea (audition) and vestibular system (equilibrium, balance, and proprioception) |
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Term
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Definition
| connects to pharynx, equalizes pressure between middle ear and atmospheric pressure |
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Term
| What is the movement of sound waves through the ear? |
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Definition
| Sound waves enter the outer ear --> causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate --> causes the ossicles to vibrate --> transfers vibrations to the oval window --> pressure waves are sent through the cochlea; waves travel from the vestibular canal --> to the tympanic canal --> then dissipate against the round window |
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Term
| Where do higher frequency sounds pass? |
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Definition
| Higher frequency sounds we hear pass through the basilar membrane making it vibrate |
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Term
| Equilibrium of Proprioception |
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Definition
| Ability to sense the position, orientation, and movement of the body |
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Term
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Definition
In most aquatic invertebrates
Sends positional information
Small, round chambers lined with hair cells, contains statoliths |
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Term
| Where is the vestibular system in vertebrates located? |
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Definition
| located in the inner ear next to the cochlea |
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Term
| What detects linear movement of the head? |
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Definition
| Utricle and saccule detect linear movement of the head. |
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Term
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Definition
| Senses horizontal movement |
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Term
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Definition
| senses vertical acceleration |
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Term
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Definition
| Detection of radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, including those wavelengths that correspond to visible light, ultraviolet light, and infrared light, as well as electrical and magnetic stimuli |
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Term
| Examples of Electromagnetic Sensing |
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Definition
Fish detect electrical signals from other fish
Platypus bill can detect electrical currents from prey
Homing pigeons use magnetite to accurately navigate
Pit vipers sense infrared radiation (heat) from prey |
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Term
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Definition
| detect photons of light arriving from the sun or other light sources, or reflecting off an object |
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Term
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Definition
| fundamental unit of electromagnetic radiation with the properties of both a particle and a wave |
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Term
| Example of Photoreception |
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Definition
Planaria (Platyhelminthes)
Simple visual organ
Eyecup containing endings of photoreceptor cells << these detect presence/absence of light
To detect direction of light there are layers of pigment that casts shadows |
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Term
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Definition
| many light detectors in the compound eyes of arthropods |
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Term
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Definition
| transparent tube that the lens and crystalline cone focus light onto |
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Term
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Definition
| surround the rhabdom and serve as photoreceptors |
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Term
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Definition
surround the rhabdom and retinula cells
keep light from one ommatidium from leaking to an adjacent ommatidia |
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Term
| Photoreception of Echinoderms |
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Definition
| eye spots at tips of arms |
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Term
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Definition
| These eyes have a single lens that focuses an image of the visual world to form an image on the retina, that image is received and interpreted by the CNS |
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Term
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Definition
| strong outer connective tissue sheath |
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Term
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Definition
| continuous with sclera but thin and clear |
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Term
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Definition
| pigmented smooth muscle controlling size of pupil |
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Term
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Definition
sensitive to low intensity of light
do not discriminate colors
used mostly at night |
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Term
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Definition
require more light for stimulation
detect color
fewer cones than rods in the human retina |
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Term
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Definition
modified type of neuron
outer segment contains pigments while the inner segment contains nucleus and other organelles
Synaptic terminal neurotransmitter filled vesicles fuse with membrane and interacts with postsynaptic neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| vitamin A derivative that absorbs light energy |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Chemicals bind to chemoreceptor cells, initiating signals that cause release of neurotransmitters from the chemoreceptor cell
Neurotransmitters then initiate electrical responses in neurons that extend axons into the brain |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| structure or structures that serve one or more functions related to support, protection, and locomotion |
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Term
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Definition
| hydrostatic, exoskeleton, and endoskeleton |
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Term
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Definition
| water-filled cavity surrounded by muscle |
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Term
| Examples of a hydrostatic skeleton |
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Definition
Cnidarians' body and tentacles can elongate or shorten
Echinoderms move by the use of tube feet
Earthworms move forward by passing a wave of muscular contractions along the length of the body |
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Term
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Definition
| external skeleton surrounding and protecting the body |
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Term
| Example of an exoskeleton |
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Definition
| arthropods are made of chitin that must be shed to grow |
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Term
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Definition
| internal structures that do not protect the body surface |
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Term
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Definition
| main longitudinal axis (skull, spinal column, ribs) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| formed where 2 or more bones come together |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| movement in several planes |
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Term
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Definition
| a grouping of contractile cells (muscle fibers) bound together by connective tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| link bones to skeletal muscle |
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Term
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Definition
arranged, long protein fibers
composed of a series of sarcomere units
contractile |
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Term
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Definition
| muscles cells are packaged in parallel to form these |
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Term
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Definition
| named for striped microscopic pattern of myofibrils |
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Term
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Definition
| composed of interdigitating thick and thin filaments |
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Term
| What are thick filaments in sacromeres composed of? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are thin filament in sacromeres composed of? |
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Definition
| actin, troponin, and tropomyosin |
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Term
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Definition
| junction of motor neuron's axon and muscle fiber |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What happens when sodium flows into a muscle cell? |
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Definition
| This leads to depolarization and an action potential. |
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Term
| What triggers contraction of muscles? |
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Definition
Neurotransmitter is released
Action potential conduction into T-tubules
Calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum
Calcium binding to troponin
Troponin effects tropomyosin, unblocking myosin binding sites on actin filaments |
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Term
| What causes muscles to relax? |
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Definition
| Ion pumps will return calcium to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing muscles to relax again. |
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Term
| Primary function of circulatory systems |
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Definition
| to transport necessary materials (oxygen, nutrients) to all the cells of an animal's body, and to transport waste products away from the cells where they can be released into the environment |
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Term
| 2 basic types of transport/exchange systems |
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Definition
gastrovascular cavities
circulatory systems |
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Term
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Definition
Body cavity with a single opening to the outside
Cnidarians have this
All of the animal's body cells are located near the cavity/slender extensions from it
Muscular efforts of the body wall cause movement of fluids |
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Term
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Definition
Transport fluid (blood and hemolymph)
Blood vessels
One or more pumps (heart |
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Term
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Definition
Found in arthropods and some mollusks
Vessels connected to heart(s) open into animal's body cavity |
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Term
| How are nutrients and metabolic waste exchanged? |
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Definition
| by diffusion between hemolymph and body cells |
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Term
| What organism has no oxygen carrying pigments? |
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Definition
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Term
| What do insects use for gas exchange instead? |
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Definition
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Term
| What limitation do organisms with an open circulatory system face? |
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Definition
| Hemolymph cannot be selectively directed to different tissues/areas of the body |
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Term
| Closed Circulatory Systems |
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Definition
| Blood and interstitial fluid are physically separated, only certain components exchanged between the two |
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Term
| What is the advantage of a closed circulatory system? |
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Definition
| It allows for larger, more active animals to more efficiently pump blood to all body cells under high pressure |
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Term
| What organisms is a closed circulatory system generally found in? |
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Definition
| annelids, cephalopods, and all vertebrates |
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Term
| What are some common features of a closed circulatory system? |
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Definition
Blood (cells and large solutes) remains within vessels
One or more contractile, muscular heart(s)
Blood proteins often bind to oxygen and carbon dioxide
May contain disease fighting cells and molecules
Flow can be adjusted to match local tissue/organ metabolic demands
Capacity to heal vessels when broken/wounded (clots) |
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Term
| What organisms have a single circulatory system? |
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Definition
| annelids, fish, cephalopods |
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Term
| What are some common features of single circulation? |
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Definition
Single blood circulation
Single atrium collects blood from tissue
Single ventricle pumps blood out of the heart |
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Term
| What do arteries do in single circulatory system? |
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Definition
Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the gills.
Delivers oxygen and nutrients, picks up carbon dioxide and waste products. |
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Term
| What does blood circulation look like in a single circulatory system? |
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Definition
| Blood picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide and goes on through arteries to other body tissues (under low pressure) |
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Term
| What happens to deoxygenated blood in a closed circulatory system? |
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Definition
| Deoxygenated blood is returned by veins to the heart. |
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Term
| What organisms have a double circulatory system? |
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Definition
| crocodiles, birds, and mammals |
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Term
| What are some common features of double circulation? |
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Definition
Two distinct blood circuits
Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separates into 2 distinct circuits
2 atria and 2 ventricles |
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Term
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Definition
| supplies blood to all the body |
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Term
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Definition
| supplies blood to the lungs |
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Term
| What kind of circulation do amphibians and reptiles have? |
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Definition
They rely on lungs and highly permeable skin to obtain oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide.
Their internal structure causes oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to remain mostly separated |
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Term
| Pulmocutaneous Circulation |
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Definition
| supplies blood to respiratory surfaces of the lungs and skin |
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Term
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Definition
| supplies blood to body tissues |
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Term
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Definition
| blood that's been through the body (not lungs) and is low in oxygen (except oxygenated blood from skin) |
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Term
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Definition
| blood from the lungs (oxygen rich when air breathing) |
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Term
| In amphibians and reptiles where do both atria dump into? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| separates atria and ventricle |
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Term
| How does blood flow in the mammalian heart? |
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Definition
Blood enters from systemic or pulmonary veins into the atrium.
Then through one-way atrioventricular (AV) valves into ventricles.
The blood goes out one-way semilunar valves into systemic or pulmonary arteries. |
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Term
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Definition
| mammalian hearts that generate their own periodic action potentials |
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Term
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Definition
| hearts of arthropods that require regular electrical impulses from the nervous system |
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Term
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Definition
pacemaker
collection of modified cardiac cells that spontaneously and rhythmically generate action potentials |
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Term
| Activation of Mammalian Heart Contraction |
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Definition
Sinotrial node generate an action potential.
Action potential spreads because cardiac cells are electrically coupled by gap junctions.
Both atria contract together forcing blood through AV valves into ventricles.
Electrical impulses reach an AV node conducts impulse to ventricles.
Both ventricles contract together forcing blood through semilunar valves into systemic or pulmonary arteries. |
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Term
| Why do action potentials spread in the mammalian heart? |
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Definition
| because cardiac cells are electrically coupled by gap junctions (from a syncytium) |
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Term
| What happens when both atria contract together? |
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Definition
| This forces blood through AV valves into ventricles. |
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Term
| What happens when ventricles contract together? |
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Definition
| This forces blood through semilunar valves into systemic or pulmonary arteries. |
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Term
| What do the AV valves do when ventricles contract? |
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Definition
| AV valves shut so blood travels only one way. |
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Term
| What are the two phases of the cardiac cycle? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| atria contract and ventricles fill (systemic blood pressure lowest) |
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Term
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Definition
| ventricles contract and blood is ejected form the heart (systemic blood pressure highest) |
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Term
| What causes heart valves to open and shut? |
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Definition
| Heart valves open and shut in response to pressure gradients. |
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Term
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Definition
| fluid connective tissue in closed circulatory systems |
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Term
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Definition
water and solutes
functions in buffering, water balance, and cell transport
contains dissolved proteins, gases, minerals, and nutrients |
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Term
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Definition
red blood cells
Oxygen transport using hemoglobin |
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Term
| Platelets or Thrombocytes |
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Definition
| role in formation of blood clots (fibrin precipitation) |
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Term
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Definition
white blood cells
Defend body against infection and disease |
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Term
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Definition
Conduct blood away from the heart
Layers of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue around smooth endothelium |
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Term
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Definition
Smaller in diameter, branches of arteries
Walls are thinner than arteries and lack a thick layer of connective tissue
Have smooth muscle encircling |
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Term
| What role do arterioles play in blood pressure regulation? |
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Definition
| Can dilate or constrict to control blood distribution to tissues |
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Term
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Definition
Smallest and narrowest, thinnest walled vessels in the body
Arterioles branch into fine capillary networks
Site of gas and nutrient/waste exchange |
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Term
| Where do capillary networks drain? |
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Definition
| Capillary networks drain into venules. |
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Term
| What are fenestrated capillaries? |
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Definition
| They have openings of fenestrations that allow for movement of considerable water and small solutes through the walls. |
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Term
| What are continuous capillaries? |
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Definition
They have smooth walls, with no fenestrations.
Permit less water and solute movement. |
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Term
| How does blood enter capillaries on arteriole ends? |
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Definition
| under hydrostatic pressure |
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Term
| What fluids might be forced out of the blood by high pressure? |
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Definition
| some fluid not red blood cells or large proteins |
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Term
| What happens to the hydrostatic pressure along the capillary bed? |
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Definition
| Hydrostatic pressure decreases |
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Term
| Low pressure and high proteins in the blood creates what? |
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Definition
| Proteins in the blood create an osmotic foce that draws fluid back into the blood. |
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Term
| What happens to most of the fluid that leaves? |
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Definition
| The fluid will be recaptured by the venule end of the capillary. |
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Term
| What does the lymphatic system do? |
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Definition
| Collects fluid that is not captured and return it to the blood |
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Term
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Definition
Capillaries come together to drain into venules
Thin walls |
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Term
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Definition
Thinner and less elastic than arteries
Need help returning blood to the heart |
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