Term
| What is a eukaryotic cell? |
|
Definition
| a eukaryotic cell is a cell in which the DNA is an organelle called the nucleus which is bounded by a double membrane. |
|
|
Term
| What is a prokaryotic cell? |
|
Definition
| A prokaryotic cell is a cell thats DNA is concentrated in a region not inclosed by a membrane. This region is called the nucleoid. |
|
|
Term
| What is the interior of a prokaryotic cell called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the region between the nucleus and plasma membrane of an eukaryotic cell called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The plasma membrane functions as a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to service the entire cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The nucleus contains most of the genes in a eukaryotic cell. It is usually the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell. |
|
|
Term
| What is the nuclear envelope? |
|
Definition
| the nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| What is the nuuclear lamina? |
|
Definition
| The nuclear lamina is between the nucleus and nuclear envelope, it is a netlike array of protien filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Structures that carry the genetic information. |
|
|
Term
| What is each chromosome made up of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The nucleolus is where rRNA is manufactured from instructions by the DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ribosomes are made of rRNA and protien and are the cellular components that carry out protien synthesis. |
|
|
Term
| What is the endomembrnae system? |
|
Definition
| A system of membranes that carry out various functions such as protien synthesis, transport into membranes, metabolism and detox of poisons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is endoplasmic reticulum (ER)? |
|
Definition
| ER is an extensive network of membranes that accounts for more than half the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of ER? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Smooth ER is called smooth Er because there are no ribosomes on the surface so it appears smooth. Used in the synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detox of drugs and poisons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Rough ER has ribosomes on the outside so under a microscope it appears rough. Rough ER makes secretory protiens, is a membranes factory, and makes its own membrane phospholipids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protiens that have carbohydrates covalently bonded to them. |
|
|
Term
| What is the Golgi Apparatus? |
|
Definition
| The warehouse of the cell the Golgi is where products of ER, like protiens, are modified, stored and sent to other destinations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that an animal cell uses to digest macromolecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ...the process in which amoebas and many other protists eat by engulfing smaller organisms or other food particles. |
|
|
Term
| What are contractile vacuole? |
|
Definition
| Many freshwater protists have contractile vacuole that pump excess water out of the cell thereby maintaining a suitable concentration of ions and molecules inside the cell. |
|
|
Term
| What is the central vacuole? |
|
Definition
| An integral part of the cell's endomembrane system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, the metabolic process that generates ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats and other fuels with the help of oxygen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chloroplasts are found in plant cells and are the sites of photosynthesis. THey convert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Microtubules are hollow rods constructed from a globular protien called tubulin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the centrosome in an animal cell is where the microtubules grow from. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| centrioles are found inside of the centrosome. Before a cell divides the centrioles replicate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The cell wall is only ffound in plant cells and distinguishes them from animal cells. The wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape and prevents excessive uptake of water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a relatively thin, flexible wall |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectins. |
|
|
Term
| What is the extracellular matrix? |
|
Definition
| Animal cells do not have plant walls but they do have an extracellular matrix (ECM) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the most abundant glycoprotien in the ECM of most animal cells |
|
|
Term
| What is active transport? |
|
Definition
| active transport is transport against the concentration gradient and this process must use energy. the result is that the cell is different from the environment around it. |
|
|
Term
| Facilitated diffusion is? |
|
Definition
| facilitated diffusion is diffusion through a channel protien in a cell wall. |
|
|
Term
| What is a hypertonic solution? |
|
Definition
| a hypertonic solution is where the concentration of a solution is greater than the concentration in a cell and water leaves the cell to balance the concentration and the cells shrivels up |
|
|
Term
| What is a isotonic solution? |
|
Definition
| An isotonic solution is where the concentration of a solution in the same as the concentration of a cell and the cell is normal. |
|
|
Term
| What is a hypotonic solution? |
|
Definition
| A hypotonic solution is where the concentration of a solution is less than the concentration in a cell and the cell bursts. |
|
|
Term
| when does water potential increase? |
|
Definition
| water potential increases as the pressure of a solution increases. |
|
|
Term
| when does water potential decrease? |
|
Definition
| water potential decreases as the concentration of a solution increases |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| diffusion of H2O across a semi permeable membrane from HI to LOW water potential |
|
|
Term
| What is diffusion of two solutes? |
|
Definition
| Energy/matter only respond to its own concentration gradient. |
|
|
Term
| What is diffusion of one solute? |
|
Definition
| net movement of energy/matter from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. |
|
|
Term
| What are the four types of transport through a cells membrane? |
|
Definition
Diffusion
-of one solute and of two solutes
Osmosis
Facilitated Diffusion
Active and Passive Transport |
|
|
Term
| Define Enzymatic Activity as it is related to the function of a cell membrane. |
|
Definition
| Enzymatic Activity - useful for metaboolic pathways where products of one reaction are substrates for another |
|
|
Term
| Define transport as it is related to the function of a cell membrane. |
|
Definition
| transport - selective regulated permeability |
|
|
Term
| the six functions of a cell membrane are? |
|
Definition
1. transport
2. Enzymatic activity
3. Signal transduction
4. cell to cell recognition
5. intercellular joining
6. attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM) |
|
|
Term
| the structure of a membrane is made of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What two things is energy used for? |
|
Definition
1. to build protiens
2. replicate DNA and divide cells for reproduction |
|
|
Term
| after they cross the membrane energy and products are harvested. this means that they are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rate at which material that passes through the cell membrane is turned into energy and harvested. |
|
|
Term
| what is absorbed through the membrane of a cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| material and energy is absorbed across the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| energy is the capacity to cause change |
|
|
Term
| What are the two forms of energy? |
|
Definition
kinetic energy
potential energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Kinetic = energy of a moving body
|
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of kinetic energy? |
|
Definition
thermal = energy of moving atoms
light = energy of moving photons
electricity = energy of moving charge |
|
|
Term
| What are the three kinds of potential energy? |
|
Definition
potential kinetic (position)
potential electric (like in a battery)
chemical (energy that can be realsed by the breaking of chem bonds) |
|
|
Term
| What are the Laws of Thermodynamics? |
|
Definition
| Conservation of energy, Law of entropy |
|
|
Term
| What is the conservation of energy? |
|
Definition
| energy/matter can not be created or destroyed, but it can be transferred and transformed |
|
|
Term
| What is the law of entropy? |
|
Definition
| every entropy transformation increases the entropy of the universe. |
|
|
Term
| Cell Respiration with oxygen present = ? |
|
Definition
Aerobic Resperation=
Gateway
CAC
ETC=
LOTS OF ATP |
|
|
Term
| cell respiration with oxygen absent? |
|
Definition
anaerobic resp
fermentation=
a little ATP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Glycolysis occurs in the presence or absence of oxygen gas and it occurs in the cytoplasm and all cells do it. |
|
|
Term
| What is anaerobic respiration? |
|
Definition
in plants, fungi, and bacteria: Ethyl Alcohol Fermentation
in animals: Lactic Acid Fermentation
in both processes, NAD is recycled so glycolysis can continue |
|
|
Term
| What are the four steps of anaerobic respiration? |
|
Definition
Glycolysis
Gateway
Citric Acid Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of change that has transformed life on earth from its earliest beginings to the diversity of organisms living today. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The scientific study of life. |
|
|
Term
| What are emergent properties? |
|
Definition
| Properties that are not present at the preceding level of complexity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study |
|
|
Term
| What are then ten levels of Biological Organization? |
|
Definition
1. The Biosphere
2. Ecosystems
3. Communities
4. Populations
5. Organisms
6. Organs and Organ Systems
7. Tissues
8. Cells
9. Organelles
10. Molecules |
|
|
Term
| What are the two processes of ecosystem dynamics? |
|
Definition
1. the cycling of nutrients
2. one-way flow of energy from sunlight to producers |
|
|
Term
| What is the molecular makeup of DNA? |
|
Definition
| Structuraly DNA is two long chains arranged in a double helix. Each chain is linked with nocleotides. |
|
|
Term
| What is "high throughput" technology? |
|
Definition
| Tools that can analyze biological materials very rapidly and produce enormous amounts of data. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze the huge volume of data that comes from "high throughput" methods. |
|
|
Term
| What is negative feedback? |
|
Definition
| Negative feedback is a form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product of a process slows that process. |
|
|
Term
| What is positive feeback? |
|
Definition
| a regulation method in which the end product speeds up production. example is clotting blood from an injury. |
|
|
Term
| What is the core theme of biology? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the eight categories for grouping species? |
|
Definition
| Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species |
|
|
Term
| What are the three domains of life? |
|
Definition
| Bacteria, Archaea (both of these are prkaryotic), and Domain Eukaryotic |
|
|
Term
| What were the two main points of Charles Darwins book "The origin of Species?" |
|
Definition
First main point was that similar species came from a succession of ancestors. He called this "descent with modification".
His second point was natural selection. |
|
|
Term
| Explain in detail Darwin's theory of natural selection. |
|
Definition
| Darwins theory of natural selection can be explained through a bird. You don't find birds that needs big nests in areas with small trees and shrubs. Birds that soft seeds have softer beaks than birds that crack open sea shells. The reason is that nature has gotten rid of the traits that did not fit that species in that area. |
|
|
Term
| What is inductive reasoning? |
|
Definition
the discovering of generalizations from a large group of observations.
example: we see the sun rise in the east everyday, therefore the sun rises in the east everyday |
|
|
Term
| What is deductive reasoning? |
|
Definition
| We take two observations and make another observation. If all organisms are made of cells, and humans are organisms, then humans are made of cells. |
|
|
Term
| The continuity of life is based on? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens when a unicellular organism divides? |
|
Definition
| Because it is unicellular the organism in a sense reproduces because it can only have one cell so the divided cell becomes its own organism. |
|
|
Term
| Cell divison is part of which cycle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How long is the DNA in a typical human cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| DNA Molecules are packed into what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| All cells that are not involved in reproduction. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sperm, egg and other reproductive cells. |
|
|
Term
| How many chromosomes does a somatic cell contain? |
|
Definition
| Each somatic cell contains 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent. |
|
|
Term
| How many chromosomes do gametes have? |
|
Definition
| Gametes have half the cells because you get two gametes which means you get 23 from each to make the 46 for somatic cells, |
|
|
Term
| What are eukaryotic chromosomes made of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Each duplicated chromosome has what associated with it? |
|
Definition
| Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids. |
|
|
Term
| Chromatids are attached by what? What is this attachment called? |
|
Definition
| Chromatids are attached by proteins calle cohesions, and this attachment is called sister chromatid cohesion. |
|
|
Term
| The region where two chromatids are most closely attached is called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The centromere is the area where two sister chromatids are most closely attached. The area to either sides are considered arms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mitosis is the division of the nucleus. |
|
|
Term
| Cytokinesis is? And what does cytokinesis follow? |
|
Definition
| Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and it follows mitosis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Meiosis is the production of gametes, or reproductive cells. |
|
|
Term
| What is the production of gametes called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why is meiosis different from mitosis? |
|
Definition
| Meiosis is the production of gametes that only have 23 chromosomes while mitosis is the reproduction of somatin cells that have 46 chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
| What is the Mitotic (M) phase? |
|
Definition
| The mitotic phase is the part of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitotic phase is the shortest phase of the cycle and only takes up about 10% of the time. |
|
|
Term
| What are the two large phases of the cell cycle? |
|
Definition
| The mitotic phase and interphase. |
|
|
Term
| What happens during interphase? |
|
Definition
| the cell grows and copies chromosomes in prep for cell division |
|
|
Term
| What are the three phases of interphase? |
|
Definition
G1 Phase (first gap), S Phase (synthesis) and the G2 Phase (second Gap)
|
|
|
Term
| How is the S Phase different from the G1 and G2 phase? |
|
Definition
| the S Phase is the only phase where chromosomes are copied. |
|
|
Term
| How many stages are apart of the Mitotic Phase? |
|
Definition
Five.
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase |
|
|
Term
| When and where does the mitotis spindle form? |
|
Definition
| Forms in the cytoplasm during prophase. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A structure of proteins associated with specific sections of chromosomal DNA at the centromere. |
|
|
Term
| Describe G2 of interphase. |
|
Definition
- a nuclear envelope bounds the nucleus
- the nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
- two centrosomes have formed by replication of a single centrosome
- in animal cells, each centrosome features two centrioles
- chromosomes, duplicated during the S phase, cannot be seen individually because thay have not yet condensed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- the chromatin fibers become mreo tightly coiled, condesing into discrete chromosomes observable with a light microscope.
- the nucleoli disappear
- each duplicated chromosome appears as two identical sister chromatids joined together at their centrmeres and all along their arms by cohesions (sister chromatid cohesion)
- the mitotic spindle begins to form. it is composed of the centrosomes and the microtubules that extend from them. the radial arrays of shorter microtubules that extend from the centrosomes are called asters
- the centrosomes move away from each other, apparently propelled by the lengthening microtubules between them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- the nuclear envelope fragments
- the microtubules extending from each centrosome can now invade the nuclear area.
- the chromosomes have become even more condensed
- each of the two chromatids of each chromosome now has a kinetochore, a specialized protein structure located at the centromere
- some of the microtubules attach to the kinetochore, becoming "kinetochore microtubules"; these jerk the chromosomes back and forth.
- nonkinetochore microtubules interact with those from the opposite pole of the spindle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- longest stage of mitosis lasting about 20 min
- centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell
- the chromosomes convene on the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane that is between the spindle's two poles. the chromosomes centromeres lie on the metaphase plate.
- for each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules coming from the opposite pole. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- shortest stage of mitosis lasting a few min.
- begins when the cohesion proteins are cleaved. this allows the two sister chromatids of each pair to break apart. each chromatid becomes a real chromosome
- the new chromosomes begin moving away from their sister to opposite ends of the cell. the kinetochore microtubules are attached at the centromere region so they move centromere first.
- the cell elongates as the nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen
- by the end opf anaphase the two ends of the cell have each have a complete set of chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- two daughter nuclei form in cell
- nuclear envelopes form
- nucleoli reappear
- chromosomes become less condensed
- mitosis is now complete |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| asexual reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes |
|
|
Term
| What are organisms composed of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| anything that takes up space and has mass |
|
|
Term
| What is the atomic number? |
|
Definition
| The number of protons in an atom. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Isotopes are atoms that are the same atoms with different numbers of neutrons. |
|
|
Term
| What is potential energy and give an example? |
|
Definition
| potential energy is the energy that matter posses because of its location or structure. Water in a resevoir on a hill has PE because of its altitude. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of electrons by two atoms. |
|
|
Term
| What is electronegativity? |
|
Definition
| The more electronegative an atom is the more it pulls shard electrons to itself. |
|
|
Term
| What would a chemical bond be called if there was no electronegativity? |
|
Definition
| A nonpolar covalent bond. |
|
|
Term
| If electronegativity is present in an atomic bond it is called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the transfer of an electron from one element to another. |
|
|
Term
| What are compounds formed by ions called? |
|
Definition
| Salts or ionic compounds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A hydrogen bond occurs when a hydrogen is covalently bonded to two other atoms. |
|
|
Term
| Discuss the adhesion of water molecules. |
|
Definition
| Water molecules bond together because H2O is a polar molecule. The Oxygen has a slight - charge while the hydrogen end has a + charge. These charges allow the H2O molecules to bond together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Adhesion is the clinging of one sustance to another. Adhesion of H2O to plant cell walls is an example. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Surface tension is a measure of how difficult it is to break the surface of a liquid. This falls in place with cohesion. If chesion is strong curface tension will be to because the molecules will be bonded together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a calorie is how much heat it takes to raise the temp of 1 gram of water 1 degree C |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of heat required to change the temp of 1 gram of water by 1 degree celcius |
|
|
Term
| What is heat of vaporization? |
|
Definition
| H of V is the amount of heat reqiured for 1 gram of a liquid to convert to the gaseous stage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A solution is a completely homogenous mixture of two or more substances. |
|
|
Term
| The dissolving agent in a solution is the? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Solute is the substance being dissolved in a soltuion. |
|
|
Term
| What are hydrophobic substances? |
|
Definition
| Substances that cannot form hydrogen bonds and repel water are hydrophobic. |
|
|
Term
| What is a hydrophilic substance? |
|
Definition
| A substance that has an affinity for water. |
|
|
Term
| A suspension of particles in a lquid is called a... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is organic chemistry? |
|
Definition
| the chemical study of carbon compounds |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between organic compounds and inorganic compounds? |
|
Definition
| Organic compounds are only found in living organisms and inorganic compounds are found only in the nonliving world. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Methane is carbon with four single bonds in a tetrahedral molecule. The formula would CH4 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ethane is two tetrahedral groups bonded together by the carbons and the formula is C2H6 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ethene is two carbons double bonded with atoms bonded to carbon in the same plane so that the molecule is flat. Formula is C2H4. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Isomers are compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same elements but different structures and different properties. |
|
|
Term
| What are structural isomers? |
|
Definition
| Structural isomers differ in how they share electrons and how they shape up. One isomer could be a straight line and another be an "L" shaped molecule. |
|
|
Term
| What are Geometric Isomers? |
|
Definition
| Geometric isomers are isomers that vary around a double bond. The two types of geographic isomers are cis isomers which have the varing element on the same side (top or bottom) and trans isomer which has one element on top and one on bottom. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other. Just like a right handed glove and left handed one. |
|
|
Term
| What are the properties of a hydroxyl group? |
|
Definition
- hydrogen bonded to a oxygen bonded to a carbon skeleton
- Called Alcohols
- polar because oxgen is electronegative
- forms hydrogen bonds with oxygens helping dissolve organic compounds like sugars. |
|
|
Term
| Define the properties of the carbonyl group. |
|
Definition
- carbon joined to an oxygen by a double bond
- two names
- ketones if attached to carbon skeleton
- Aldehydes if the group is at the end of a carbon skeleton
- ketone and aldehyde may be structural isomers with different properties
- found in sugars making two different groups of sugars
- aldoses
- ketoses |
|
|
Term
| Define the properties of a carboxyl group. |
|
Definition
- an oxygen double bonded to a carbon that is also bonded to a OH
- called carboxylic acids or organic acids
- is a source of hydrogensbecause oxygen is so electronegative
- found in cells in the ionized form with a -1 charge and called a carboxylate ion |
|
|
Term
| Define the properties of the Amino Group. |
|
Definition
- nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens and bonded to the carbon skeleton
- called amines
- acts as a base
- can pick up +H from surrounding solution (H2O)
- ionized with a charge of +1 under cellular conditions |
|
|
Term
| Define the properties of the sulfhydryl group. |
|
Definition
- sulfur bonded to a hydrogen
- called thiols
- two sulfhydryl groups bond forming a covalent bond and it stabilizes protein strucutre
|
|
|
Term
Define the properties of a phosphate group.
|
|
Definition
- phosphate bonded to 4 oxygens; 1 oxygen bonded to carbon skeleton and 2 oxygens have - charges
- called organic phosphates
- -2 charge (as listed above) when at the end of a molecule but -1 charge when linked in a chain of phosphates
-has potential to react with H2O releasing energy |
|
|
Term
| Define properties of a methyl group. |
|
Definition
- carbon bonded to 3 hydrogen atoms
- may be attached to carbon or different atom
- called methylated compounds
- when added to DNA it affects genes
- arrangement in male and female sex hormones affect their shape
|
|
|
Term
| Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are called? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds |
|
|
Term
| What are monmers and how are they linked to polymers? |
|
Definition
| Monomers are small chinas that repeat inside of a long chain which is called a polymer |
|
|
Term
| What is a condensation reaction? |
|
Definition
| a condensation reaction is a reaction where H2O is either lost or gained |
|
|
Term
| What is a dehydration reaction and how does it affect monomers? |
|
Definition
| A dehydration reaction is a reaction where water is lost in the reaction. This is how monomers connected covalently. |
|
|
Term
| What facilitates the linking of monomers? |
|
Definition
| Enzymes speed up the dehydrration process involved in making monomers. |
|
|
Term
| How are polymers broken down? |
|
Definition
| Polymers are broken down into monomers by the addition of water a process called hydrolysis. |
|
|
Term
| What are the four large classes in biological molecules? |
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Definition
| proteins, nucliec acids, carbohydrates and lipids |
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Term
| What are carbohydrates and what are the two types? |
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Definition
| Carbohydrates and both molecules and polymers of sugars. The two types are monosaccharides and disaccharides. |
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Term
| What are monosaccharides? |
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Definition
| Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars. generally monosaccharides have a formula that is a multiple of CH2O. Glucose is the most common monosaccharide. |
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Term
| What is a disaccharide? And how are they linked? |
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Definition
| A disaccharide is two monosaccharids bonded by a glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction. |
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Term
| What are polysaccharides? |
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Definition
| Polysaccharides are extremely large polymers. |
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Term
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Definition
| Starch is a polymer of glucose monomers inside plastids which include chloroplasts. Hydrolysis breaks the polymer and allows the plant to acces the glucose. |
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Term
| Polysaccharides make up what in plant cells? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| fats, phospholipids and steriods and they mix porrly with water. |
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Term
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Definition
| large molecules made up of glycerols and fatty acids. in making fat three fatty acids each join a glycerol by an ester linkage, bond between hydroxyl and carboxyl groups |
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Term
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Definition
| alcohol with three carbons each bearing a hydroxyl group. |
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Term
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Definition
| carbon chain with a carboxyl group on the end that gives it the name acid |
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Term
| what is a satturated fatty acid and how is it different from a unsatturated fatty acid? |
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Definition
| satturated fatty acid has been satturated with hydrogens and has only single bonds while a unsatturated fatty acid has atleast one double bond because of the loss of a hydrogen |
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Term
| Why are phospholipids essential to cells? |
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Definition
| Phospholipids make up cell membranes because they have hdrophilic and hydrophobic ends that make a double wall to protect the hydrophobic ends from the water and creating a membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| Lipids characterized by four fused rings |
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Term
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Definition
| cholestrol is the beginings of many steriods |
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Term
| What are the eight types of proteins? |
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Definition
- enzymatic proteins - accelerate chemical reactions
- structural proteins - support (cellulose in cell walls)
- storage proteins - storage of amino acids
- transport proteins - transport other substances
- hormonal proteins - regulate organisms activities
- receptor proteins - response to chemical stimuli
- contractile and motor proteins - movement
- defensive proteins - protection against disease |
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Term
| What are polypeptides called? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| organic molecules possesing both carboxyl and amino groups |
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Term
| The bonding of two amino acids is called? |
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Definition
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Term
| What happens when a proteins environment is altered? |
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Definition
| a change called denaturation occurs and the proteins becomes biologically inactive. |
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Term
| What are chaperonin proteins and how do they work? |
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Definition
| chaperonin proteins make sure that the folding in other proteins is not influenced negatively |
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Term
| What are polynucleotides? |
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Definition
| Polynucleotides are polymers of nucleis acids whcih are DNA and RNA |
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Term
| What are the two families of nitrogenous bases in DNA? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the properties of the pyrimidine family? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three members of the pyrimidine group? |
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Definition
| cytosine, thymine and uracil |
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Term
| What are purines made of? |
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Definition
| a six member ring fused to a five member ring |
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Term
| What are the two purines? |
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Definition
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Term
| The sugar in RNA is called? |
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Definition
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Term
| The sugar in DNA is called? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Fermentation is a catabolic process that is the partial degration of sugars without the use of oxygen |
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Term
| What is the most efficient catabolic process? and what does this process entail? |
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Definition
| Aerobic Respiration is the most efficient catabolic pathway and is where oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with other organic fuels. |
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Term
| Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration are part of what cell process? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the process of aerobic respiration? (how does it layout) |
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Definition
| organic compounds + oxygen => CO2 + H2O + Energy |
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Term
| How does aerobic respiration layout in connection with glucose? |
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Definition
| C6H12O6 + 6 O2 => 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + (ATP + Heat) |
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Term
| What are redox reactions? |
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Definition
| transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another |
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Term
| The loss of electrons from a substance in a reaction is called? |
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Definition
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Term
| the addition of electrons to a substance during a chemical reaction is known as? |
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Definition
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Term
| In a reaction the element being oxidized is known as the? |
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Definition
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Term
| In a reaction the electron acceptor is known as the? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is NAD+ and how does it connect with energy harvest? |
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Definition
| electrons are stripped off of glucose in the form hydrogens. hydrogens are not directly transfered to oxygen instead they are passed to NAD+ which is an electron carrier. NAD+ functions as an oxidizing agent during respiration |
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Term
| What is the elctron transport chain and how does it work? |
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Definition
| the electron transport chain is used to break the fall of electrons to oxygen. an electron chain is a chain of proteins on the inner membrane of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells and plasma membrane in prokaryotic cells. H+ removed from glucose are shuttled by NAD+ (NADH)to the top higher energy end of the chain. at the bottom lower energy level O2 captures the hydrogens forming water |
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Term
| What are the three stages of respiration? |
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Definition
Glygolysis
The Citric Acid Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis |
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Term
| What is oxidative phosphorylation? |
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Definition
| A mode of ATP in which mitochondria capture energy released from the electron transport chain. |
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Term
| What is substrate-level phosphorylation? |
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Definition
| mode of ATP synthesis that occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP, rather than adding inorganic phosphate to ADP as in oxidative phosphorylation |
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Term
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Definition
| first step in respiration that breaks glucose down into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate |
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Term
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Definition
| ATP synthase is the enzyme that actually makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. ATP synthase works like a ion pump in reverse. Rather than hydrolyzing ATP to pump protons against their concentration gradient, under the conditions of cellular respiration, ATP synthase uses the energy of an existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis . In this case the existing ion gradient is the difference in H+ on either side of the mitochondrial membrane. |
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Term
| What are the steps of alcohol fermentation? |
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Definition
| In alcohol fermentation pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps. The first step releases CO2 from the pyruvate which is converted to acetaldehyde. In the second step acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol by NADH which becomes NAD+ and regenerates supoply of NAD+ for glycolysis. |
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Term
| What are the steps of lactic acid fermentation? |
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Definition
| pyruvate is reduced by NADH to lactate as an end product with no release of CO2. |
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Term
| What breaks down fatty acids? |
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Definition
| Beta Oxidation breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments, whcih enter the citric cycle as acetyl CoA. NADH and FADH2 are also generated during beta Oxidation and can enter the electron transport chain. |
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Term
| The conversion of sunlight to chemical energy is called what? |
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Definition
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Term
| An organism acquires the organic compounds it uses for energy and carbon skeletons through two major modes.... |
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Definition
autotrophic nutrition - sustain themselves with out eating anything derived from other living beings. They produce their organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic raw materials obtained from the environment.
heterotrophic nutrition - they are consumers eating other organisms |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| How does CO2 enter and O2 leave a leaf? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the chemical formula of photosynthesis? |
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Definition
| 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 |
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Term
| What are the two parts of photosynthesis? |
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Definition
Light reactions
Calvin Cycle |
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Term
| How do light reactions work? |
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Definition
light reactions convert solar energy to chemical energy.
H2O is split providing H+ and protons and giving off O2 as a by product
the H+ goes to a NADP+ which becomes a NADPH
ATP is generated through photophosphorylation |
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Term
| carbon being incorporated ino organic compounds is called? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| A photosystem is chlorophyll molecules organized along with other small organic molecules and proteins |
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Term
| What are the names of three stages of the Calvin Cycle? |
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Definition
1. carbon Fixation
2. reduction
3. regeneration of
the CO2 acceptor |
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Term
| What is the first step of the calvin cycle and ho does it work? |
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Definition
Carbon Fixation
- attaches CO2 to five carbon sugar named ribulose biphosphate
- rubisco catalyses this step
- forms a six carbon intermediate
- very unstable and splits into to two 3-phosphoglycerate |
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Term
| Frederick Griffith discovered transformation. What is it? |
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Definition
| Transformation is a change in cells due to contact with different DNA. Harmless virus becoming harmful when put in beaker with dead harmful bacteria. |
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Term
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Definition
| Helicases are enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks seperating the two parent strands and making them available as template strands |
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Term
| What is the replication fork? |
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Definition
| A Y shaped region where the parental DNA is being unwound from the double helix |
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Term
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Definition
topoisomerase breaks and rejoins DNA at the replication fork to relieve strain on the double helix
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Term
| What do DNA polymerases do? |
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Definition
| They catalyze the synthesis of new DNA by adding nucleotides to a preexisting chain |
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Term
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Definition
| The first nucleotide chain produced during DNA synthesis is actually RNA and is called the primer |
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Term
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Definition
| mismatch repair is where enzymes remove and replace incorrectly paired nucleotides that have resulted from replication errors. |
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Term
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Definition
| An enzme that can cut out damaged DNA strands. |
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