Term
| What 3 main things does the duplication of cells require? |
|
Definition
| REPLICATE genetic material (duplicate all chromosomes), accurate SEGREGATION of each duplicated chromosome to each daughter cell, DIVISION of cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
| How is the genetic material of prokaryotic cells organized? |
|
Definition
| singular, circular chromosome |
|
|
Term
| what protein helps coil prokaryotic chromosomes so they fit inside the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Binary fissions is ____, meaning it produces 2 identical cells. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| DNA replication in bacteria beings at the ____ and then proceeds in which direction? |
|
Definition
| origin of replication -- goes in both directions from there |
|
|
Term
| protein that forms a ring on the inside of the membrane of two, newly formed bacterial cells that pulls the membrane in to form a septum between the two cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| humans have __ chromosomes/cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 copies of the DNA within the replicated chromosome. Identical to each other. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| same chromosome, one from each parent - same genes but different alleles |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| short, repeated DNA sequence that forms a visible constriction in a chromosome |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| proteins attached to centromeres that connect the chromosomes to microtubles during mitosis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| complex of proteins that holds sister chromatids together |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In compaction of eukaryotic DNA, what protein complexes with the DNA? Why can they complex together? |
|
Definition
| histone -- histones are (+) charged, DNA are (-) charged |
|
|
Term
| Levels of DNA compaction, from lowest to highest |
|
Definition
| nucleosome, solenoid, chromosome |
|
|
Term
| What level of DNA compaction? about 200 nucleotides of DNA are wrapped around a core of 8 histone proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What level of compaction? known as "interphase compaction", it is the level of compaction that DNA spends the most amount of time in |
|
Definition
| solenoid, AKA 30 nm fiber |
|
|
Term
| What level of compaction? forms radial loops that are stacked on top of each other ... prepares the cell for division |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ proteins hold together the radial loops that form chromosomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 5 main phases of eukaryotic cell division |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is the non-dividing functional state at the end of G1 when the cell cycle pauses and the cell can carry out its specialized function |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the difference in cell cycle length between different cell types is primarily due to the length of which phase? |
|
Definition
| G0 - the amount of time that the cell actually performs its function |
|
|
Term
| 4 processes of interphase |
|
Definition
| DNA replication, DNA condensation, centriole replication, cytoskeleton broken down ... also, growth |
|
|
Term
| ___ are the things at each pole of a cell that pull the chromosomes toward them in anaphase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when DNA first being to be visible |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| DNA completes compaction into chromosomes, pairs of centrioles move to each pole of the cell, spindle apparatus beings assembly, nuclear envelope dissolves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spindle fibers contime to grow from each centrosome, chromosomes become attached to the spindle apparatus, microtubules begin to pull chromosomes toward middle of cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromosomes line up along metaphase plate and are under tension |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lysis of cohesin proteins, sister chromatids pulled to opposite poles |
|
|
Term
| anaphase a vs. anaphase b |
|
Definition
| a - sister chromatids pulled toward poles :: b - b - the cell elongates and poles move apart |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spindle apparatus disassembles, nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes, chromosomes uncoil inter solenoid, expression of genes starts, nucleolus reappears |
|
|
Term
| in animal cells, cytokinesis happens by a ____ made of actin and myosin microfilaments and produces a ___. |
|
Definition
| contractile ring, cleavage furrow |
|
|
Term
| in plants, cytokinesis is achieved by formation of a ___, that is made up of vesicles lining up and fusing |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| enzymes that phosphorylate other molecules |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| enzymes that dephosphorylate other molecules |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| proteins are "turned on" by adding a ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| at the ___ checkpoint, the cell basically "decides" to divide |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| at the ___ checkpoint, the cell makes a commitment to mitosis by checking to make sure it has all the proteins necessary to make it through mitosis. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| at the __ checkpoint, te cell ensures that all chromosomes are attached to the spindle.. this occurs in what phase? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| __ are regulatory proteins that are accumulated in a cell-cycle specific fashion |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when are there the most number of cyclins? |
|
Definition
| before going into mitosis |
|
|
Term
| kinases that work only when bound to cyclin. what do they do? |
|
Definition
| CDKs (cyclin-dependent kinases) - they cause an increased synthesis of cell cycle-specific proteins |
|
|
Term
| cyclins control ___, which control ___, which control ___. |
|
Definition
| kinases (cdk's), which control proteins, which control mitosis |
|
|
Term
| CDKs are activated by ____... meaning they cause mitosis to start |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| CDKs are sensitive to internal and external factors such as ___, ___, and ___ |
|
Definition
| nutritional state, hormones, and growth factors |
|
|
Term
| CDK adds a ___ to other molecules when a cyclin is present |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 irreversible points in the cell cycle |
|
Definition
| G1/S and Spindle checkpoints |
|
|
Term
| Before Mendel, people thought that inheritance happened how? |
|
Definition
| by a blending of traits from each parents due to mixing of fluids |
|
|
Term
| 4 important ideas from Mendel |
|
Definition
| particulate inheritance, quantitative approach, principle of segregation, independent assortment |
|
|
Term
| information necessary to specify a trait |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how genetic information is packaged, contain many genes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| location of a gene on a chromosome |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| different forms of a gene |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| known location on a chromosome - reference point on a genome |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| combination of alleles carried by an individual |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the appearance of an individual/how genes are expressed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a cross to study only 2 variations of a single trait |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ____, the offspring are always like the parents |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is meant by the statement "Mendel used a quantitative approach to genetics"? |
|
Definition
| when he did crosses, he manually counted the number of offspring for each trait |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| P0 - parents, F1 - first fillial generation, F2 - second fillial generation, cross of F1s |
|
|
Term
| What is the significance of Mendel's idea of Particulate Matter? |
|
Definition
| he knew that whatever was causing traits to be expressed or repressed were actual, packaged material of some sort - not just mixing of fluids |
|
|
Term
| in genetic crosses, the trait that is seen in the F1 generation is the ___ trait. the trait that disappears in the F1 generation but reappears in F2 is the ___ trait. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what gametes would a Homozygous dominant parent have? (RR), homozygous recessive? heterozygous? |
|
Definition
| dom - R gamete, rec - r, hetero - R and r |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| illustrated by crosses - the parental alleles for a gene segregate during gamete formation so that 1 allele is in each gamete and the offspring only get 1 allele from each parent for a trait |
|
|
Term
| gametes are haploid - what does that mean in terms of alleles? |
|
Definition
| a gamete contains only one of the alleles from the parent |
|
|
Term
| in a monohybrid cross, what are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the F2 generation (cross of F1s)? |
|
Definition
| genotypic - 1:2:1 , phenotypic - 3:1 |
|
|
Term
| phenotypic ratio of dihybrid crosses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| principle of independent assortment |
|
Definition
| genes are transmitted independently of one another ... any 2 chromosomes can pair up in a single gamete |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the probability of independent events = the product of individual probabilities ::: ex - the probability of a pea being round and yellow is the probability of it being round times the probability of it being yellow |
|
|
Term
| when using the product rule, you must consider each ___ separately |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the basis of the product rule is from the principle of ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| rule for determining the number of genotypes and phenotypes for "n" loci |
|
Definition
| phenotypes: 2^n ... genotypes: 3^n |
|
|
Term
| rule for determining the number of gametes for "n" loci |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| to determine the genotype of progeny, do a _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cross the unknown genotype to a homozygous recessive individual and see if the recessive phenotype segregates... if some of the progeny of the cross show recessive trait, then you know the individual was heterozygous |
|
|
Term
| Mendel studied ___ traits... either round OR wrinkled, either red OR white |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the most common pattern of inheritance is ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| traits that vary over a continuous range (such as height or weight) have what type of inheritance? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ is the result of multiple genes controlling a single trait |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| genes in polygenetic inheritance have ___ contributions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| three loci, two alleles each, controlling one trait --- what kind of inheritance? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the more loci controlling a trait, the greater/smaller the degree of difference between the phenotypes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ is when a single gene influences multiple traits |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia |
|
|
Term
| pleiotropy is due to what 2 things? |
|
Definition
| branching biochemical pathways, and multifunctional proteins |
|
|
Term
| ___ is when there is one gene with 2 alleles that create an intermediate phenotype (red flower + white flower = pink flower) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| phenotypic and genotypic ratio in incomplete dominance |
|
Definition
| 1:2:1 -- both pheno and geno |
|
|
Term
| ___ is when the heterozygote shows phenotypes of both homozygotes. example? |
|
Definition
| codominance -- ABO blood types |
|
|
Term
| codominance and ABO blood typing - how many genes and how many alleles |
|
Definition
| 1 gene (I) with 3 alleles (IA, IB, and i) |
|
|
Term
| which phenotype of the ABO blood type system shows codominance? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when the products of DIFFERENT genes interact in a non-additive way to influence the phenotype |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| formal name for genetic interaction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| epistatic phenotypic ratio |
|
Definition
| 9:3:4 (black:chocolate:yellow in labs) |
|
|
Term
| explain how epistasis causes 3 different coat colors in labradors |
|
Definition
| 2 genes are at work: B gene controls pigment color (B - black, b - brown) and E gene controls the deposition of the pigment (E - allows pigment in fur, e - does not) |
|
|
Term
| What genotypes produce a black lab? chocolate? yellow? |
|
Definition
| black: B_E_ ... chocolate: bbE_ ... yellow: B_ee, bbee |
|
|
Term
| in the case of labs, is epistasis dominant or recessive? |
|
Definition
| recessive... because ee is the genotype that blocks the color |
|
|
Term
| how is epistasis different than dominance? |
|
Definition
| epistasis involves 2 loci, dominance involves 2 alleles |
|
|
Term
| how do prokaryotic cells divide? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ can be thought of as genetic entities: they are DNA sequences and their behavior can be followed genetically by foloowing the behavior of traits that are tightly linked. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| without the ___ protein, there would be no guarantee that each daughter cell would end up wtih all the chromosomes and just one copy of each chromosome because replication of chromosomes and segregation of chromosomes happen at different times |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ___ controls the degredation of cohesin proteins and drives the process of anaphase A |
|
Definition
| APC - anaphase promoting complex |
|
|
Term
| ___ enzymes control the progress through the cell cycle by phosphorylating a variety of cellular proteins needed for division. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the signal to proceed through anaphase goes through the ___. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Once the APC is activated, it activates ___, then enzyme that hydrolyses the cohesin proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the two chromatids of a newly replicated chromosome remain attached at their centromere until ___. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what would happen if you had mitosis without cytokinesis? |
|
Definition
| you'd get a cell with twice the amount of DNA as its precursor cell. |
|
|
Term
| In a diploid cell, for each chromosome there are 2 ___, one from each parent. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Only cells in __-__ phase have sister chromatids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Meiosis I is often called the ___ division because at the end, the resulting cells will have half the number of chromosomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| we count chromosomes by counting ___ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Meiosis I is characterized by the homologues of each chromosome finding their partner and pairing along the entire length in an elaborate structure called a _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| each chromosome a child inherits is a mosaic of parts of that chromosome from each parent. how does this happen? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Difference between mitosis and meiosis: mitosis produces cells that are ____, whereas meiosis produces cells that have ____. |
|
Definition
| identical :: half the genetic material (half the # of chromosomes) |
|
|
Term
| Difference between mitosis and meiosis: mitosis produces (#) cells, and meiosis produces (#) cells. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| different forms of a gene that can exist |
|
|
Term
| segment of DNA that codes for a protein |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a __ is the location of an allele of a gene on a chromosome |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| during the process of gamete formation, different alleles are segregated into gametes so that when fertilization occurs, the progeny only gets one allele from each parent |
|
|
Term
| principle of independent assortment |
|
Definition
| different genes will behave independently in the production of gametes and thus in genetic crosses |
|
|
Term
| how do alterations of dominance affect the results from simple crosses? |
|
Definition
| the phenotypic ratio is reduced to the genotypic ratio because all the genotypes have unique phenotypes |
|
|
Term
| in ___, the protein product of the allele may be dominant when acting in one capacity and recessive when acting in another |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when doing a cross with "true breeding" parents, what do you do? |
|
Definition
| it means that the parents are homozygous |
|
|
Term
| DNA is normally at what level of compaction during G0? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which cell cycle checkpoint would not be directly affected by a mutation in cyclins? |
|
Definition
| spindle - bc it's controlled by APC |
|
|
Term
| what is required for a cell to move past the G2/M checkpoint? |
|
Definition
| successful replication and DNA integrity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if a question is about a Mendelian cross of true breeding parents, what is true about the parents' genotypes? |
|
Definition
| one is homo dom and one is homo rec |
|
|
