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| Cell Cycle Control System |
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| cyclically operating set of molecules that triggers and coordinates dey events in cell cycle |
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| control point where stop/go signals controll the cell cyle. most cells have built in stop signals until go signals override them |
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| enzymes that activate or inactivate proteins by phosphorylating |
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| protein that activates some kinases |
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| Density-dependent inhibition |
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| crowded cells stop dividing |
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| cells must be anchored to a substratum inorder to divide |
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| Why do cancer cells keep dividing? |
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| they dont heed normal regulatory signals |
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| process that converts normal cells to cancer cells |
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| abnormal cells that remain at the original site |
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| invasive. impairs the functions of organs. called cancer |
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| Differences of Malignant tumors |
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- may have unusual number of chromosomes
- metabolism may be disables
- may stop functioning constructively
- may secret signals so blood vessels grow towards it |
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| spread of cancer cells to other sites |
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| heritable factor that varies among individuals |
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parent that only produces offspring like it.
Ex: purple flowers produce purple flowers |
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| the breeking of two different true-breeding varities |
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| "parent" generation. True-breeding |
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| 2nd generation. made of hybrid offspring |
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| Third generation, "second filial generation" cross of F1 generation. usually produces a 3:1 ratio |
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| Mendel: a parent's two alleles segregate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes |
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| Testcross (Purpose and procedure) |
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Definition
Purpose: to identify an unknown genotype
Procedure: breed it with a homozygous recessive individual |
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| heterozygous for one genetic character |
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| heterozygous for two characters |
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| law of Independent Assortment |
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| Mendel: Each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation. |
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| one gene that codes for multiple phenotypic traits |
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| a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus. (one gene controls multiple traits) |
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when characters vary in a population along a continuum
Ex: skin color. From pale to brown to dark. |
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| two or more genes affect one trait. usually indicated by quantitative characters |
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| phenotypic range of a genotype |
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many factors within genetic and the environment influence the phenotype.
Ex: knowledge, skills, etc. |
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| pre-birth genetic testing where placenta tissue is taken to test for diseases |
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| Recessive genetic disease. chloride transport channels are defective, causing a mucus that coats certain cells to become thicker and stickier than normal. Coats organs and causes poor absorption of nutrients, chronic bronchitis, and recurrent bacterial infections. Can be treated by daily antibiotics. |
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| recessive genetic disease. predominately affects African Americans. Hinders ability of RBC to carry oxygen through blood. Causes physical weakness, pain, organ damage,and paralysis. Heterozygotes have an increased immunity to malaria |
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| Dominant genetic disease. Causes degeneration of the nervous system |
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| Pre-birth genetic test. Can identify Tay-Sachs |
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| Recessive genetic disease where grain cells cannot metabolize certain lipids because an enzyme does not work probertly. cAuses seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance. |
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| Chromosomal theory of Inheritance |
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Definition
| Mendeliam gemes have specific loci on chromosomes and it's the chromosome that undergoes segregation and independent assortment |
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| 1907. Studied genetics through fruit flies. Discoverd sex-linked traits though eye color of flies. Discovered that genes are located on chromosomes. |
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the character that is most commonly observed in natural populations.
Ex: red eyes in fruit flies |
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| How were sex-linked traits discovered and who discovered them? |
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| Discovered by Morgan. Red eyed and white eyed fruit flies were mated. 50% of the males had red eyes and 50% had white eyes. No females had white eyes. Hinted towards a sex-linked trait |
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| Systems of alternative sex chromosomes |
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Definition
1) Female: XX, Male: X
2) Famale: ZW, Male: ZZ
3) Femaile: Diploid, Male: Haploid
- bees |
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| Sex-determining region of y chromosomes. Makes a male develop. Without this regin the gonads turn into ovaries and a female develops. |
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| Gene that is located on either sex chromosome. Typically in humans it reffers to a gene on the x-chromosome |
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| male sex linked alleles because only one allele is present |
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| Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy |
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Definition
| Recessive sex-linked genetic disease. Causes progressive weakening of muscles and loss of coordination |
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| Recessive sex-linked disease. Causes the lack of a protein that is required for blood clotting |
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| The inactive X-chromosome in each female cell. Happens from a modificaton of the DNA. Lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope. Becomes inactive early in embryonic development. Prevents too much protiens from being made. Reactivates during meiosis so that each egg gets an active X-chromosome |
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| Nondisjunction: what happens |
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Definition
Meiosis I: pair of homologous chromosomes fail to seperate
Meiosis II: sister chromosomes fail to seperate |
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| When the aberrant gamete united with a normal one during fertilization. Causes an abnormal number of chromosomes. Most aneuploid cells are aborted long before birth because it's so harmful. |
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| An aneuploid cell that is missing a chromosome (2n-1) |
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An aneuploid cell with an extrea chromosome. (2n+1)
The cause of Down syndrome |
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| More than two complete sets of chromosomes. Common in plants |
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| 3n chromosomes. may come from fertilization of an abdormal diploid cell produced by nondisjunction of all chromosomes |
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| 4n chromosomes. may come from failure of 2n zygote to divide after DNA replication. |
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| What causes a more normal appearance, polypoidy or aneuploidy? |
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Definition
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A chromosomal fragment is lost. likely occurs during meiosis from crossing over occuring with unevened size fragments.
ABcD = ABD |
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deleted DNA fragment attaches to sister chromatid. likely occurs during meiosis from crossing over occuring with unevened size fragments.
AbcD = ABCbcD |
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chromosome fragment section becomes reversed.
AbcD = AcbD |
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DNA fragment joins nonhomologous chromosome.
AbcD = AfgD
EfgH = EbcH |
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| Why are inversion and translocation harmful? |
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Definition
| Because gene expression is influenced by it's neighbors |
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| Caused from an extra chromosome 21 from nondisjunction in meiosis I. Causes mental retardation and heart defects. Becomes more frequent as age of mother increases |
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| XXY Aneuploidy (Klinefelter syndrome) |
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Definition
| individual has male sex organs, small testes, is sterile, and some feemale body characteristics. May have subnormal intelligence. |
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| Individual is a male that is taller than average. Other symptoms do not fit any defined syndrome |
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| Individual is female, healthy, and normal |
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| Individual is phenotypically female. Is sterile because the sex organs don't fully mature |
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| Cri du chat ("cry of the cat") |
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| Caused by deletion on chromosome f. Causes mental retardation, a small head, unusual facial features,and a cry that sounds like a cat's purr |
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| Caused form a translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22, causes cancer (leukemia) |
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