Term
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Definition
| totality of an organism's chemical reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| breaks down macromolecules, energy is released |
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Term
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Definition
| building pathways, require energy |
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Term
| 1st law of thermodynamics |
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Definition
| energy can be transferred and transformed but it cannot be created or destroyed |
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Term
| 2nd law of thermodynamics |
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Definition
every energy transfer increases disorder in the universe
when energy is converted from one form to another, some of that energy becomes unavailable for doing work |
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Term
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Definition
| measure of disorder/randomness |
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Term
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Definition
total energy = usable energy + unusable energy
change in G = Gproducts - Greactants
if G < 0 free energy is released, exergonic
if G > 0 free energy is required, endergonic |
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Term
| how does ATP power cellular work? |
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Definition
| by coupling exergonic and endergonic reactions |
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Term
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Definition
proteins, macromolecules. catalyst. specific
they lower the activation energy without effecting free-energy change |
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Term
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Definition
| accelerates chemical rxn without being consumed |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
regulation of enzyme activity
(effects of local conditions)
(cofactor and coenzymes)
(enzyme inhibitors)
(allosteric regulation) |
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Definition
local conditions - temperature and pH
cofactor and coenzymes - non-protein helpers
inhibitors - chemicals that block activity. competitive, non-competitive
allosteric regulation - protein function of one site is influence by molecule binding at a different site |
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Term
glycolysis start and end products
where it occurs |
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Definition
starts with 6-carbon glucose, ends with 2, 3-carbon pyruvate molecules
occurs in cytosol |
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Term
| cellular respiration start and end products, and 3 processes within |
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Definition
start with 2, 3 carbon pyruvate, end with CO2
pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, ETC and chemiosmosis
uses O2, aerobic |
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Term
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Definition
anerobic
pyruvate --> lactic acid and ethanol, recycles coenzyme |
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Term
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Definition
coenzyme
electron carrier in redox reactions
nictotinamide adenine dinucleotide
NADH is the reduced form, when 2e- and H+ is added it becomes NADH |
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Term
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Definition
energy investment phase
- 2 molecules ATP have been invested
- 6-carbon glucose molecule has been split to 2, 3-carbon sugar-phosphate called (glyceraldhye-3-phosphate) (G3P)
energy payoff phase
- NADH produced (exergonic, free energy captured by reduction of NAD+ to NADH
- ATP produced
2 3-carbon molecule of pyruvate for every molecule of glucose
2 ATP
2 NADH |
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Term
what links glycolysis and the citric acid cycle?
where does this occur/what happens? |
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Definition
pyruvate oxidation
a transport protein brings the pyruvate into the mitochondria, 1 carbon leaves forming CO2, now 2 carbon atom, NAD is reduced to NADH, coenzyme A enters and attaches to 2 carbon which forms Acetyl Coenzyme A
products: 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 NADH |
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Term
| what FAD stands for and what it's involved in |
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Definition
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
involved in Citric acid cycle,
gets reduced from FAD to FADH2 |
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Term
what is the main purpose of the citric acid cycle?
what is an alternative name for citric acid cycle? |
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Definition
it completes the oxidation of glucose to CO2
krebs cycle |
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Term
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Definition
CoA and 2C, CoA attaches 2C to 4C and leaves, 2 CO2 leave, 3NAD+ reduced to 3 NADH, ADP-> ATP, FAD -> FADH2, end with 4-carbon and cycle occurs again
since this happens with two pyruvate, 2 ATP are produced, along with 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 |
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Term
oxidative phosphorylation (ETC and chemiosmosis)
where occurs, what it couples
process |
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Definition
occurs in inner membrane of the mitochondrion
couples NADH oxidation and ATP production
e- delivered to ETC in inner membrane, series of electron carriers (proteins)
e- transferred from 1 carrier to next, during which they give up some energy
O2 receives them and H2O is formed as a byproduct.
energy released by e- used to pump H+ ions across membrane to create high concentration. flow back across membrane through turbine. flow spins turbine and ATP is produced.
produces 32 to 34 ATP
H20 |
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Term
| how oxidative phosphorylation couples NADH oxidation and ATP production |
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Definition
ADP traps chemical energy to make ATP
NAD+ traps the energy released in redox reactions to make NADH
in cells C-H bonds store energy
energy released in catabolism is trapped in NADH
energy for anabolic and other processes is supplied by ATP
NADH --> NAD+ + H+ + 2e- + energy
energy + ADP + P --> ATP
mechanism = chemiosmosis |
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Term
chemiosmosis definition
what does chemiosmosis couple? |
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Definition
converts the potential energy in the H+ proton gradient into chemical energy in ATP. the proton motive force
chemiosmosis couples ETC to ATP synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| folds in the inner membrane of the mitochondria |
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Term
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Definition
the motor thing in chemiosmosis that pumps H+ back into the low concentration in the mitochondrial matrix from the high concentration of H+ in the intermembrane space
cytosol
mitochondria outer membrane
intermembrane space
inner membrane
mitochondrial matrix
intermembrane space |
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Term
| substrate phosphorylation |
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Definition
2 ATP produced from glycolysis,
2 ATP produced from Citric Acid Cycle |
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Term
| Anaerobic carb catabolism |
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Definition
anaerobic respiration takes place in some prokaryotes that live in environments without oxygen
ex. SO4,2- is used as e- acceptor at end of ETC and H2S is formed, instead of O2 and H2O
one type of anaerobic respiration is fermentation
produced ATP without use of ETC |
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Term
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Definition
anaerobic
no O2, no ETC
glycolysis
alcohol fermentation
- 2 ethanol also produced
lactic acid fermentation
- 2 pyruvate turned into 2 lactate |
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Term
| catabolism of various molecules from food |
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Definition
proteins --> amino acids --> to pyruvate, acetyl CoA or Citric Acid Cycle
carbs--> sugars --> glycolysis
fats --> glycerol --> G3P -or-
fats --> fatty acids --> acetyl CoA |
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Term
| how do catabolic pathways yield energy? |
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Definition
| they oxidize organic fuels |
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Term
| what is oxidized in the citric acid cycle and what is produced? |
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Definition
glucose is oxidized to CO2
byproducts are 2ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2 |
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Term
Photosynthesis overall reaction, and reaction when glucose is produced
where it occurs |
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Definition
general
CO2+2H2O + light energy --> (CH2O)n + H2O + O2
glucose
6CO2 + 12 H2O +light energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
endothermic (kcal/mol)
occurs in chloroplasts |
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Term
| photosynthesis and cellular respiration cycle |
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Definition
photosynthesis produces organic molecules and O2 which fuel cellular respiration which produces CO2 and H2O which fuels photosynthesis
light energy converted to chemical energy |
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Term
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Definition
converts light energy into chemical energy
produces ATP and NADPH |
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Term
| carbon-fixation reactions (calvin cycle) |
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Definition
biochemical pathway
uses ATP and NADPH
CO2 to CH2O, (sugar) |
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Term
chloroplast structure
- stroma
- thylakoid
- thylakoid space (lumen) |
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Definition
stroma - "cytoplasm" of chloroplast; calvin cycle
thylakoid - membranes of chloroplast
thylakoid space - inside of thylakoid 'saks'; proton motive force |
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Term
| overview of photosynthesis processes |
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Definition
H2O fuels light reactions, uses NADP+ and ADP produced from calvin cycle; produces O2, ATP, NADPH
ATP and NADPH fuel Calvin cycle, which is fueled by CO2, and produces sugar (CH2O) and ADP and NADP+ as byproducts |
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Term
| what happens when a photon meets a molecule? |
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Definition
scattered/reflected
transmitted
absorbed = when a photon is absorbed, it adds energy; photon disappears and energy is absorbed |
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Term
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Definition
photosynthetic pigments
chlorophyll a- all organisms that undergo O2 photosynthesis
chlorophyll b carotenoids - accessory pigments |
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Term
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Definition
CH2 in chlorophyll a
CHO in chlorophyll b
porphyrin ring - light absorbing head of molecule; Mg at center
hydrocarbon tail |
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Term
photosystems (and where located)
antenna
reaction centers |
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Definition
photosystems made up of
- chlorophyll molecules
- accessory pigments
- proteins
located in thylakoid membrane
antenna - light harvesting complex. energy absorbed, e- excited, energy is passed to nearby chl molecules
reaction centers - energy absorbed, e- excited, excited e- transferred to e- acceptor |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
thylakoid space
thylakoid membrane
stroma
H+ high concentration in thylakoid space |
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Term
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Definition
takes place in stroma surrounding thylakoid
uses atp and nadph to convert CO2 to sugar
anabolic
uses energy
builds carbs from smaller molecules
G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) produced
calvin cycle must cycle 3 times
fixation
- 3RuBP (ribulose biphosphate) + 3CO2 --> 6 3-phosphoglycerates
reduction
- 6 3-phosphoglycerates +6ATP + 6NADPH --> 6 G3P. 1 exits
regeneration
- renew 3 RuBP. need another 3 ATP
overall
9 ATP
6 NADPH
G3P
the one G3P that leaves turns into glucose and other sugars |
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Term
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Definition
ribulose biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase
found in all photosynthetic organisms that use the Calvin cycle to fix CO2
most abundant enzyme on earth
when CO2 is low, RuBisCO adds O2 to RuBP rather than CO2 |
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Term
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Definition
| consumes oxygen and releases CO2, consumes ATP |
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Term
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Definition
light hits chlorophyll in PSII, transfers to other chlorophyll, when hits reaction center in PSII, e- released. 2e- and 2 protons go down ETC. water splits to replace e- and contributes H+ ions to the lumen. contributes H+ gradient. 2H2O split and 1 O2 is created. ATP released in this ETC. then e- transferred to PSI complex. photons energize electron and e- get transferred to ETC 2. when 2e- transferred, NADPH made. gradient made uses ATP synthase to make ATP
final products
ATP
NADPH
molecular O2 |
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Term
cellular communication
external signals |
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Definition
the conversion of external signals to cellular responses
external signals
- environmental stimuli (light touch)
- from other cells
membrane plays a large role in cells responses |
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Term
quorum sensing
vibrio cholerae |
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Definition
causes cholera
regulates expression of virulence facor
V.cholerae infection -> diarrhea -> V. chlolerae released into environment |
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Term
how chemical signals reach target cells (3 ways)
how they are delivered (3 modes) |
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Definition
direct contact - between multicellular organisms, gap junctions and plasmodesmata between plant cells
- also cell-cell recognition in direct contact
diffusion
circulation in the blood
autocrine signals - signals affect cell that produces them
paracrine signals - diffuse to and affect other cells
hormones - allow for long distance signaling; travels through blood vessel |
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Term
| 3 stages of cell signaling |
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Definition
reception
- plasma membrane
- bind ligands (chemicals) non-covalently
- cytoplasmic receptors - small non-polar, estrogen and testosterone; cause changes in gene expression
- membrane receptors - large, polar, cannot cross membrane; transmembrane proteins ex. insulin
transduction
- cytoplasm
- cascade of molecular interactions relay the signal from the receptor
- protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation- protein kinase transfers phosphate group from ATP to protein
response
- cytoplasm |
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Term
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Definition
| ATP makes cAMP which goes to protein kinase A which triggers a cellular response |
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Term
| cell division sexual and asexual |
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Definition
sexual - meiotic - genetic variation - haploid ->diploid->haploid
asexual - mitotic - single celled eukaryotes, hydra, identical |
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Term
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Definition
allows for reproduction, growth and development, and tissue renewal
asexual |
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Term
| biological or ecosystem services |
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Definition
production of life sustaining gases (O2)
recycling of material/nutrients
energy flow
novelty - prescription drugs from living organisms |
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Term
| systematics, taxonomy, classification |
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Definition
study of organisms diversity and evolutionary relationships
taxonomy - naming
classification - evolutionary relationship |
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Term
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Definition
represent evolutionary history of groups of organisms; morphological and molecular characteristics
represented in form of a tree
tips - taxon
polytomy - unresolved pattern of divergence
clades = taxons = monophyletic group
paraphyletic group (within a clade)
polyphyletic group (between clades)
homologies - similarities due to shared ancestry; any feature shared by 2 organisms inherited from a common ancestor
ancestral and derived traits - derived trait shared among organisms and viewed as evidence of common ancestry (vertebrates) |
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Term
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Definition
| similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar adaptations = analogous traits, moles |
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Term
| morphological characteristics |
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Definition
fimbriae - hairlike structure, adhere to cells and substrates
capsule - polysaccharie layer
cell wall - found in prokaryotes
circular chromosome
sex pilus
common morphologies - spherical, rod-shaped, spiral |
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Term
| genetic recombination (3 steps) |
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Definition
conjugation - sex pili, cells join, DNA transferred
transformation - DNA from external sources
transduction - viral transfer of DNA |
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Term
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Definition
energy source - light
carbon source - CO2
domain - all 3 |
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Term
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Definition
energy source - light
carbon source - organic compounds
domain - bacteria |
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Term
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Definition
energy source - inorganic cmpds
carbon source - CO2
domain - bacteria and archaea |
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Term
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Definition
energy source - organic cmpds
carbon source - organic compounds
domain - 3 domains |
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