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| the immediate stimulus and mechanism for the behavior (proximate) |
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| How the behavior contributes to survival and reproduction (ultimate) |
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| Fixed action pattern (FAP) |
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Definition
-Is a sequence of unlearned, innate behaviors that is unchangeable
-Once initiated, is usually carried to completion
-A FAP is triggered by an external sensory stimulus known as a sign stimulus |
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| In male stickleback fish, the stimulus for attack behavior |
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Is the red underside of an intruder
-When presented with unrealistic models, as long as some red is present the attack behavior occurs
-Proximate: The red belly of the intruding male acts as a sign stimulus that releases aggression in a male stickleback.
-Ultimate: By chasing away other male sticklebacks, a male decreases the chance that eggs laid in his nesting territory will be fertilized by another male |
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a type of behavior that includes both learning and innate components and is generally irreversible
-distinguished from other types of learning by a sensitive period: a limited phase in an animal’s development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned |
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showed that when baby geese spent the first few hours of their life with him, they imprinted on him as their parent
-proximate: During an early, critical developmental stage, the young geese observe their mother moving away from them and calling
-ultimate: On average, geese that follow and imprint on their mother receive more care and learn necessary skills, and thus have a greater chance of surviving than those that do not follow their mother |
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| Conservation biologists have taken advantage of imprinting in programs |
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| to save the whooping crane from extinction |
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| Many behaviors have a strong |
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genetic component
-biologists study the ways both genes and the environment influence the development of behavioral phenotypes |
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| Behavior that is developmentally fixed |
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Definition
Innate Behavior
-under strong genetic influence |
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| Migratory behavior in birds have been found to be |
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Definition
genetically programmed
-birds placed in funnel cages left marks indicating the direction they were trying to migrate |
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| Animal Communication in behavioral ecology |
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| A signal is a behavior that causes a change in another animal’s behavior |
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reception of and response to signals
-modes: visual, auditory, chemical, tactile, and electrical signals
-type of signal used to transmit information is closely related to an animal's lifestyle and environment |
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| Experiments involving auditory communication among various insects have shown that |
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Definition
| courtship songs are under genetic control |
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the modification of behavior
-Based on specific experiences
-Learned behaviors range from very simple to very complex |
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| Operant conditioning is a type of |
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Definition
| associative learning in which an animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment |
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| the ability of an animal's nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information gathered by sensory receptors |
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| Problem solving can be learned by |
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| observing the behavior of other animals |
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influence of genes on behavior
-evolve to maximize fitness
-natural selection can result in the evolution of behavioral traits in populations |
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| Drosophila populations raised in high-and low-density conditions show a clear |
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| divergence in behavior linked to specific genes |
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-Views foraging behavior as a compromise between the benefits of nutrition and the costs of obtaining food
-Behaviors that maximize energy intake per unit time or per unit of energy spent will evolve |
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Definition
Conducted a cost-benefit analysis of feeding behavior in crows
-The crows eat molluscs called whelks but must drop them from the air to crack the shells
-determined that the optimal flight height in foraging behavior correlated with a fewer number of drops, indicating a trade-off between energy gained (food) and energy expended |
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| Research on mule deer populations has shown that |
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| predation risk affects where the deer choose to feed |
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| differences between sexes in traits not directly required for reproduction |
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Definition
form of natural selection that concerns the evolution of traits that increase reproduction rather than survival
-In some cases,traits that increase reproductive success at the cost of reduced survival evolve. These are the traits Darwin thought of as 'sexually selected' |
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Definition
-Energetic cost of reproduction in males is low, relative to females (sperm is cheap relative to eggs (anisogamy))
-males reproductive success generally increases with the number of mates
-female's reproductive success is limited by egg production and not by the number of mates
-therefore, males should evolve traits that increase their access to females and thus females should be choosy about with whom they will mate |
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| Male-male competition (intrasexual selection) |
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Definition
Leads to large body size, antlers and other features useful in ritualized or real battles among males
-may involve agonistic behavior
-Summary: sex with greater investment = choosy (intersexual selection), sex with least investment = competes (intrasexual) |
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| an often ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains access to a resource |
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| Female choice (intersexual selection) leads to |
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Definition
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| Hypotheses for female choice |
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Definition
1. good gene hypothesis: sexually selected trait is an honest indicator of overall good genes and thus higher fitness
2. Runaway sexual selection
-refer to notes |
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Definition
-monogamy
-polygamy: polygyny (one male, multiple females), polyandry (one female, multiple males
-test of Bateman's principle |
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| The males are often more showy and larger than the females |
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-One female mates with many males
-Each male incubates the eggs in his nest and cares for the young while the females go off in search of more males
-The females are often more showy than the males |
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| Altruism (how can it evolve?) |
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Definition
-some animals help to rear offspring produced by others while not reproducing themselves
-natural selection favors behavior that maximizes an individuals survival and reproduction
-ex. Naked Mole rat: Nonreproductive individuals may sacrifice their lives protecting the reproductive individuals from predators |
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| The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables close relatives to produce offspring |
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| Hamilton's Rule and Kin Selection |
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Definition
Hamilton proposed quantitative measure for:
-For predicting when natural selection would favor altruistic acts among related individuals
-Altruistic behavior will evolve when the benefit to the recipient, times its coefficient of relatedness to the giver, exceeds the cost to the giver |
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| Three key variables in an altruistic act |
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Definition
-the benefit to the recipient
-the cost to the altruist
-the coefficient of relatedness |
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| The coefficient of relatedness |
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| probability that two relatives may share the same genes |
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| Natural selection favors altruism when |
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Definition
| benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist |
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rB > C
Predictions:
-Altruistic behavior should increase the reproductive success of the recipient
-Altruistic behavior more likely to evolve when giver and
recipient are closely related
-Cost to helper should be low |
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Definition
| natural selection that favors this kind of altruistic behavior by enhancing reproductive success of relatives |
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altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals
-can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future |
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