Term
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Definition
| a small molecule that acts as a signal between individuals and usually causes a change in physiology or behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| the conversion of an external stimulus to an internal signal in the form of an action potential. |
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Term
| What are the four processes on which sensory ability depends? |
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Definition
| (1) Transduction (2) amplification of the signal (3) transmission to the CNS (4) integration with other signals. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| sensors for distortion caused by touch or pressure. |
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Term
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Definition
| sensors for specific molecules or classes of molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| sensors for particular wavelengths of light in the visible spectrum |
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Term
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Definition
| sensors for electric fields. |
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Term
| How do sensory systems increase senstitivity? |
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Definition
| They use signal averaging; receptors are cheap, so it is easy to add a large number of them an average the signals received. |
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Term
| What is the electrical gradient in a sensory cell? |
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Definition
| The inside of the cell is negative relative to the outside. |
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Term
| What is the electrical response of sound-receptor cells in response to sound |
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Definition
| They depolarize (become less negative.) |
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Term
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Definition
encoding stimulus strength [amplitude of
graded potentials] by RATE of action potentials |
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Term
1. A lizard gas exchanger would best be described as...
a. ram-jet
b. flow-through
c. buccal-pumped
d. tidal |
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Definition
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Term
Excluding the energy it takes to move the medium across the gas exchanger, which of
the following ventilatory systems is the most efficient at extracting oxygen from the
medium it is in?
a. frog positive pressure
b. human tidal
c. fish positive pressure
d. reptile negative pressure |
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Definition
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Term
Which of the following is not a factor in how fast oxygen is delivered to tissues?
a. amount of water coating the alveoli
b. rate of lung capillary blood flow
c. PO2 in the alveoli vs. that in the blood
d. activity of oxygen transporters
e. none of the above; all are factors |
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Definition
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Term
Why do fish expend so much of their energy budget on ventilation?
a. water is dense and viscous compared with air, so it takes more force to pass it
over the gas exchanger
b. water does not hold as much oxygen as air, so more water must be moved per
unit time, compared with air, to extract the same amount of oxygen
c. gills are much less efficient than lungs at extracting oxygen
d. lacking surfactant, fish gills are often partially collapsed and this reduces the
amount of oxygen they can extract. Thus the fish must pump more water to
compensate.
e. a & b |
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Definition
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Term
Most of the carbon dioxide transported to the lungs is carried...
a. by rhodopsin
b. bound to hemocyanin
c. as bicarbonate ion
d. in otoliths as calcium carbonate
e. as carbamyl dihydride |
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Definition
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Term
Which of the following factors does not contribute to vascular resistance?
a. stroke volume
b. vessel diameter
c. overall length of blood vessels
d. blood viscosity |
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Definition
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Term
Consider a situation with a normal cell that has a -60 mV resting potential. This is the
standard resting potential due to the potential due to the normal distribution of ions
across the membrane, and the normal ion conductance across the membrane. What
would happen to the resting potential if the internal potassium concentration of the cell
doubled?
a. the cell would hyperpolarize
b. the cell would depolarize slightly
c. the resting potential would be +55 mV
d. the resting potential would go to zero
e. the cell would stop resting and start exuding vast quantities of battery acid |
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Definition
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Term
The ability to generate action potentials requires...
a. myelin
b. voltage-sensitive sodium channels
c. voltage-sensitve potassium channels
d. b & c
e. all of the above |
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Definition
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Term
Where would you expect to find i.p.s.p.'s?
a. in a post-synaptic dendrite region
b. in the mid-region of a long motor axon
c. associated with voltage-sensitive sodium channel proteins
d. in myelinated portions of an axon
e. within the synaptic cleft |
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Definition
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Term
Graded potentials...
a. Are found only in certain neurons
b. Typically represent a hyperpolarization
c. Are found in sensory cells only
d. Propagate along the axon but not in dendrites or neuron terminal endings
e. None of the above |
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Definition
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Term
Suppose you have a neuron with normal resting potassium channels but which also has
some special sodium channels. The sodium channels are not voltage-gated, rather they are
stuck open. They are small channels, and have about the same conductance as the resting
K+ channels. If this neuron does not make action potentials, which of the following is
your best estimate of the neuron’s resting potential?
a. +100 mV
b. +50 mV
c. +5 mV
d. -70 mV
e. -100 mV |
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Definition
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Term
Elephants have very good low frequency hearing (infrasound to humans). How would
you expect the basilar membrane and/or cochlea of an elephant to change relative to a
human, to account for the improved low-frequency range?( Note: Recall that the basilar
end of the membrane is where the stapes pushes on the oval window, and the apical end
is at the small peak of the cochlea.)
a. Both the basilar part of the membrane and the apical part of the membrane grow
longer
b. Over its entire length the basilar membrane would become thinner
c. The apical end of the basilar membrane would grow longer, wider, and less rigid.
d. The apical end of the basilar membrane would become much more rigid, and
with less mass. |
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Definition
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Term
Which of the following animals is most likely to have an all-rod retina?
a. A crab living on a shallow ocean bottom at about five meters depth
b. Ducks
c. Your basic rat
d. A lizard
e. Turtles |
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Definition
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Term
What is the function of mammalian middle ear ossicles?
a. The ossicles compensate for low-frequency barometric changes that would
damage the cochlea.
b. The ossicles are suspended away from body tissues making them relatively cold.
This minimizes the response of hair cells to thermal noise.
c. Middle ear ossicles are connected to the eustacian tubes and push them open to
compensate for pressure changes.
d. Middle ear ossicles act as a lever system to allow more effective force to be
delivered to the fluid of the inner ear. |
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Definition
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Term
The transduction channel in a vertebrate hair cell is opened by...
a. a ligand gate
b. the release of glutamate at the efferent synapse
c. mechanical stress applied through tip links from adjacent stereocilia (stereovilli)
d. displacement of the basilar cell membrane
e. stretch of the fenestra sensorium |
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Definition
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Term
16. The tectorial membrane overlies inner hair cells in the cochlea, but is not in contact with
them. What is the function of the tectorial membrane?
a. This membrane makes a special fluid compartment that allows a special high
calcium solution to be present on the apical surface of hair cells.
b. This membrane moves up and down along with the basilar membrane, but
because of its attachment point is sheared laterally compared with the basilar
membrane, leading to lateral fluid drag across the hair cells.
c. The tectorial membrane attaches to the basilar membrane so as to apply tension
on the latter; this creates a stiffness gradient for the traveling wave.
d. The tectorial membrane acts as a pressure relief device for loud sounds, needed
because the endocochlear fluid is not compressible. |
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Definition
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Term
17. What is the difference between a pheromone and a hormone?
a. Hormones are found only in vertebrates and pheromones are found only in
invertebrates.
b. Pheromones are signals transmitted via a portal blood system.
c. Hormones are secreted by ducted glands while pheromones are secreted by
ductless glands.
d. Pheromones are broadcast via an external medium while hormones are blood-
transported. |
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Definition
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Term
Endocrine cells produce hormones, but are themselves controlled only by neurons
a. True
b. False |
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Definition
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Term
The hypothalamus is...
a. part of the digestive system
b. another name for the adenohypophysis
c. contains endocrine cells but not neurons
d. a structure of the central nervous system
e. the main source for secretion of erythropoietin |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the pieces on an ear's hair cell that respond to sound pressure waves? (many __ and one __) |
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Definition
| Many stereocilia and one kinocilium |
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Term
| Describe the involvement of ion channels in releasing neurotransmitters from an ear's hair cells. |
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Definition
| K+ ion channels in the stereocilia bend in response to fluid displacement from sound waves, which results in membrane depolarization; Ca2+ influx due to depolarization fuses with plasma membrane and releases neurotransmitter. |
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Term
| What is the background pressure in the outer and middle ear? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the evolutionary benefit of having a cochlea? |
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Definition
| Having the epithelium wound into a spiral increases the frequency wave. |
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Term
| What is the highest frequency an (optimal) human can hear? |
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Definition
| 20 kHz. A bat can hear 130. |
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Term
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Definition
| the functional units of insect eyes. |
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Term
| What are the layers of cells in the retina, from INSIDE to OUTSIDE? |
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Definition
| photoreceptor cells, connecting neurons, ganglioncells, axons to optic nerve. |
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Term
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Definition
| a transmembrane protein complex in the eye that changes shape in response to light. |
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Term
| What are the basic tastes? |
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Definition
| sweet, salty, acid, umami, bitter. |
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Term
| taste buds are _(a)_ but olfactory receptors are _(b)_ |
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Definition
| (a) secondary (epithelial) (b) true neurons. |
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Term
| what is the process of smelling? |
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Definition
| odor molecules trapped in mucus membrane (to make it aqueous), bind to chemoreceptors in dendrite membranes, transmitted to olfactory bulb of brain. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| A muscle that contracts and extends the limb |
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Term
| How many nuclei do skeletal muscle cells have? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where is smooth muscle found? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the protein components of a microfibril? |
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Definition
| actin (thin filament --edges) and myosin (thick filament -- center) |
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Term
| What is the neurotransmitter in vertebrates that triggers muscle contraction? |
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Definition
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Term
| In muscle strength/speed/etc, what does genetics have control over? |
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Definition
| motor unit distribution: the number of motor neurons and their distribution across muscle fibers. |
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Term
| In regard to muscle speed/strength/etc, what does the nervous system have control over? |
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Definition
| the # of action potentials sent to each motor unit, and the rate at which action potentials are sent to each unit. |
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Term
| With regard to muscle speed/strength/etc, what does the person have control over? |
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Definition
| how much force a given muscle can deliver -- more mitochondria. |
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Term
| IF a muscle is comprised of S.R., contractile protein, and mitochondria, which should be emphasized to make it FASTER? |
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Definition
| more S.R., to increase mobilization of Ca. |
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Term
| IF a muscle is comprised of S.R., contractile protein, and mitochondria, which should be emphasized to have the most strength and endurance? |
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Definition
| mitochondria and contractile protein. |
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Term
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Definition
| muscle contraction that does not result in movement. |
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Term
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Definition
| muscle contraction that results in movement. |
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Term
| How does the endocrine system function as a "broadcast system"? |
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Definition
| Each cell builds appropriate receptors for hormones that are useful for its purposes. The hormones are "broadcast" all over the body, but only cells for which it is useful will pick it up. |
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Term
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Definition
| lipid-soluble hormones that bind to cytosol receptors in cell membranes. |
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Term
| amino acid derivatives and peptides |
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Definition
| hormones that bind to transmembrane chemoreceptor proteins. |
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Term
| What's the result of epinepherine release? |
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Definition
| Production of glucose from glycogen in anticipation of high muscle activity. |
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Term
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Definition
| act on the same cell that secretes them |
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Term
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Definition
| diffuse and act on local cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| carried between cells by blood or other body fluids. |
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Term
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Definition
| released from neurons but act on distant cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| released into the environment and act on a different individual. |
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Term
| external variable (in endocrine system) |
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Definition
| the nervous system picks up on something (stress) and controls the endocrine system to fix it. |
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Term
| If an animal can switch between asexual and sexual reproduction, when do they generally use each one? |
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Definition
Asexual: when conditions are good and the main goal is to produce tons of offspring, quickly.
Sexual: When conditions are questionable and it is helpful to build some variability into the population. |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to develop an unfertilized egg, without sexual reproduction. Can result in a haploid or diploid adult. |
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Term
| What are the times in a vertebrate's life when hormones are critical to reproduction? |
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Definition
| (1) embryonic differentiation of sexual organs, (2) transitioning from larva to adult (3) control of gamete production. |
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Term
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Definition
| cells in embryos that have specific hormone receptors -- the XY one has the testosterone receptor. |
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Term
| At seven weeks of development.. what are the two reproductive duct systems and what chromosomal sex do they correspond to? |
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Definition
| Mullerian=female; Wolffian=male. |
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Term
| Leydig cells in the __ accept cholesterol and make testosterone at 7 weeks of development |
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Definition
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Term
| At birth, what is the effect of testosterone on males and females? |
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Definition
| 0 for both -- only effective at a certain point in development (~7-18 weeks) |
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Term
| When a primary oocyte goes through meiosis 1, what is the result? |
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Definition
| 1 secondary oocyte and 1 polar body |
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Term
| When a secondary oocyte goes through meiosis II, what is the result? |
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Definition
| 1 ootid (--> mature egg cell) and 1 polar body |
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Term
| When a primary spermatocyte goes through meiosis, what is the result? |
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Definition
| 2 secondary spermatocyte --> 4 spermatids --> 4 mature sperm cells |
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Term
| In the adolescent brain, what hormone does the hypothalamus secrete to stimulate the pituitary gland into developing gonads? |
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Definition
| GnRH (gonadotrophin releasing hormone) |
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Term
| In the adolescent brain, what hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland in response to GnRH from the hypothalamus? |
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Definition
| LH (luteinizing hormone) and FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) |
|
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Term
| protogynous hermaphrodism |
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Definition
| develops female parts first, then male |
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Term
| protoandrous hermaphrodism |
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Definition
| produce male parts first, then female |
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Term
| simultaneous hermaphrodism |
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Definition
| each individual has both testes and ovaries. Two individuals are required for mating. They do not self-fertilize. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| completely surround developing spermatocytes to cut off the body's blood supply, so that the immune system doesn't attack them. |
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Term
| Where are sperm cells developed? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| How long does it take in a human to produce sperm? |
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Definition
| About 78-80 days; production is constant at around 200,000/day. |
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Term
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Definition
| the muscle in the penis that fills with blood and traps fluids from the prostate, vas deferens, bulbo-urethral gland and seminal vesicle |
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Term
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Definition
| the intromittent system that transports sperm from the scrotum to the seminal vesicle and out into the world. |
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Term
| What are the glands the produce accessory fluid in human sperm? |
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Definition
| seminal vesicle, bulbourethral gland, and prostate gland. |
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Term
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Definition
| eggs develop inside of them in the ovaries. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| lit "yellow body," a structure formed from the ruptured follicle from when the secondary oocyte released from the ovary. |
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Term
| What are the hormones that regulate the ovarian hormone cycle? |
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Definition
| estradiol and progesterone. |
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Term
| What are the hormones that regulate gonadotropic hormone cycle (in females?) When do they peak? What controls them? |
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Definition
| LH and FSH. They peak at ovulation. Pituitary controlled. |
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Term
| Are oogonia haploid or diploid? |
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Definition
| Diploid -- they undergo meiosis and can each produce one mature egg cell. |
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Term
| How many oogonia is the average human female born with? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| When does the meiosis complete and an egg cell mature? |
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Definition
| At fertilization; the polar body is ejected then. |
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Term
| How is the fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm prevented? |
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Definition
| Within 2 seconds of fertilization, Ca2+ changes the permeability of the membrane to H20, causing the VM to lift away from the plasma membrane of the egg. |
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Term
| What is the function of cortical granules? |
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Definition
| They fuse with egg plasma membrane after fertilization, then dump all their contents (mostly enzymes) into the space in the gap between VM and PM |
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Term
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Definition
| the mammalian equivalent of the vetilline envelope. |
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Term
| What are two influences of maternal inheritance factors? |
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Definition
| (1) overall characteristics of the embryo and the adult organism, (2) factors that make development happen correctly: for example, cleavage divisions must produce non-identical daughter cells. |
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Term
| What are the fates of the animal and vegetal pole in an egg? |
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Definition
| The animal pole develops into the embryo; the vegetal pole becomes yolk,etc to feed the embryo. |
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Term
| What is the heirarchy of segmentation genes? |
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Definition
| gap genes turn on pair-rule genes. pair-rule genes activate segment polarity genes. |
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Term
| cytoplasmic determinant genes |
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Definition
| establish the anterior-posterior gradient of the embryo and turn on gap genes. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| organize cells into groups of segments along the anterior-posterior axis. turn on pair-rule genes. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| organize cells into individual segments. turn on segment polarity genes within each segment. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| establish the anterior-posterior gradient within each segment. |
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Term
| Where are stem cells in an adult human? |
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Definition
| bone marrow, skin cells, gut cells. to regenerate red blood cells, skin, epithelial lining in gut. |
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Term
| What is the function of an egg shell? |
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Definition
| It is permeable to respiratory gases only, works like gore-tex. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| surrounds the embryo itself, provides cushioning for the embryo. |
|
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Term
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Definition
| lines the inner surface of an egg; vascularized for gas transport. |
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Term
| allantois/allantoic cavity |
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Definition
| functions in an egg for storage of nitrogenous waste and also for gas transport. In placental mammals, the allantois becomes the umbilical cord. |
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Term
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Definition
| contains yolk; vascularized for transport of nutrients. |
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