Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Monogamy among animals is very _______. (___ - ____ %) |
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Once a man and woman have mated, they stay together for breeding seasons. (either one or more) |
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|
Term
| What is an example of a monogamous mammal? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| a hormone released during copulation (sex) |
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Term
| Where is the vasopressin located in monogamous mammals? (Prarie Voles) |
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Definition
| In monogamous voles, vasopressin receptors are located in the ventral pallidum -> part of the dopamine reward (pleasure) pathway. |
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Term
| The male voles learn to associate the ____ of the specific female with the pleasureable sensation and "thinks": "having sex with this woman is pleasureable!" |
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Definition
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Term
| the _______ forming the receptor for vasopressin is encoded by one _____ of the relevant gene. |
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Definition
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Term
| Prarie voles have the allele that causes the vasopressin protein to be inserted in the _______ _________ but other vole species do not. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Every mammal has genes to make ______. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| How did scientists discover this specific gene/process? |
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Definition
| Experimentally inserting extra copies of the vasopressin receptor gene => caused: bonding without mating and huddle more closely after mating. |
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|
Term
| What is the basis of this idea of monogamy? |
|
Definition
| based on having this vasopressin receptor. |
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Term
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Definition
| greek for "branch" - study of how living things have branched off from each other through evolution. |
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Term
| humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their _______. |
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Definition
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Term
| "A Possible History" (my explanation of slide # 7) |
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Definition
| The superior men make babies with a female and leave her. A man who wants that female comes along and kills those babies in order to make his own babies with that woman. The females become promiscuous in order to protect their babies from these jealous men. Men realize that these women became promiscuous and decide not to leave their women after having babies with them. This process is what could have led to monogamous pairs such as those in the world of prarie voles. |
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Term
| Casualties in Evolution: 2 Causes |
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Definition
1) Proximate Causes: Genes, Hormones, Nervous System
2) Ultimate Causes: historical pathways, selective processes |
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Term
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Definition
| an animals tendency to defend his specific area |
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Term
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Definition
| sociographical area than an animal of a particular species consistently defends against con-specifics. (animals = usually involves a nest) |
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Term
|
Definition
| an area of habitat that is NOT defended |
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Term
| ways of MARKING TERRITORY |
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Definition
| scent marks (pee, poop, rubbing body parts [ex: dogs]) <---- non-violent |
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|
Term
| territoriality has: 1 - ______ & 2 - ______. |
|
Definition
1. timing.
- "hot seasons" <--- ex: robins that are single = winter; pairs of robins = breeding season
2. gender - related |
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|
Term
| Territoriality and Testosterone |
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Definition
| ex: male lizards = more threat/energy after testosterone implantation = caused death |
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|
Term
| Territoriality and Reproduction |
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Definition
| females/floaters ---> related! |
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Term
|
Definition
varied among species according to animals size and territories' function. --> ex: new Holland honeyeaters - winter = less territorial (flower abundant) and spring/fall = more territorial (less flowers to eat)
- sugar - water experiment |
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Term
| Explanation of owners winning/ winner takes all |
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Definition
| behavioral dispositions; motivational change ( time changes a situation) |
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Term
|
Definition
Darwin - variation (mutations), heredity, fitness (differences in reproductive success)
- MUST BE ADAPTIVE!
- genes and culture |
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Term
|
Definition
Darwins' biggest competitor
- giraffe idea, one giraffe reached to a high tree, his neck got longer, therefore all giraffes later were born with long necks |
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Term
|
Definition
| subcategory of natural selection -> personal advantage in mating over others of same species and sex. survival - decreasing rates |
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Term
|
Definition
| lemmings, explains altruism ( a selfless concern for the welfare of others ) , problem with this idea, kin selection (hamilton) |
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Term
| Relative investment in reproduction |
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Definition
-females: invest more energy and resources; eggs (large and costly), gestation, nursing, other feeding.
-males: use less energy and resources; sperm (small and cheap) |
|
|
Term
| Different strategies of effectively passing genes |
|
Definition
-males: fertilize as many females as possible
-females: selective; look for best quality = best kids |
|
|
Term
| If the ratio of ____________ changes, ____________ can change too. |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Only 10% of mammal species, men stay to help raise kids |
|
Definition
| examples: humans, seahorses, and blue-tits |
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|
Term
| 90% of men make babies with the women then _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- rape is rare in the animal world
- |
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|
Term
| Social Monogamy does NOT mean Genetic ____________! |
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -90% of bird species --> FEMALES chear on male partners... - reasons: fertility insurance, good genes for at least some of her offspring, genetic compatibility, more resources, more protection, less infanticide |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| an area that an animal will defend because it is where they have a nest or a den.It is where they mate, or it has enough food supply for them. M vs. M/F vs. F. Size depends on animals size and function of the territory. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| an unprotected area/territory |
|
|
Term
| How does an animal gain control of a territory? ("Territoriality") |
|
Definition
| not through a fight... but through a noticeable display: visual (red breast robin), auditory, scent marks (urination, defecation, rubbing body parts) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
a time when different animals are territorial
ex: robin pairs - during breeding season; robin individuals: during winter; nectarivores = in the mornings only |
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|
Term
| A "hot season" is the time in which animals are doing what? |
|
Definition
| reproducing. Animals that own a territory reproduce more than those who don't. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| An animal that doesn't own a territory - and therefore does not reproduce as frequently as the territory owners. Example: The "Great Tit Floaters" try to build a "secret nest" without being noticed. |
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|
Term
| What is the hormone that is released when two animals engage in sexual intercourse? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If an animal is monogamous, where do they have vasopressin receptors? |
|
Definition
| in their ventral pallidum. It is part of the dopamine reward/pleasure pathway. |
|
|
Term
| What does it mean when an animal is monogamous/what is an example of one? |
|
Definition
it means that they stick to one partner at a time
ex: prarie voles |
|
|
Term
| If an animal is monogamous then the male associates what of the specific female with pleasure that makes him realize that having sex with this specific person is what gives him pleasure? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Proximate vs. Ultimate Causes in Evolution: |
|
Definition
Proximate: gene, hormones, nervous system
Ultimate: historical pathways, selective processes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of a mother killing her offspring |
|
|
Term
| What are two examples of infanticidal animals? |
|
Definition
water bugs ( mothers are infanticidal so males guard the eggs)
wattled jacana ( males watch the eggs for 22 -2 4 days but the females will destroy anything laid before that) |
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|
Term
| What are 3 aspects of Darwin's Natural Selection? |
|
Definition
| Variation (mutation), Heredity, and Fitness ( differences in reproductive success) |
|
|
Term
| What are 3 aspects of Darwin's Natural Selection? |
|
Definition
| Variation (mutation), Heredity, and Fitness ( differences in reproductive success) |
|
|
Term
| What are 3 aspects of Darwin's Natural Selection? |
|
Definition
| Variation (mutation), Heredity, Fitness (differences in reproductive success) |
|
|
Term
| What is sexual selection? |
|
Definition
| a subcatergory of natual selection, advantage over others in same species and sex, differential success in reproduction, accounts for survival (decreasing traits) |
|
|
Term
| What are the sexual selection/strategies of bower birds? |
|
Definition
females: eggs (large and costly), gestation, nursing, other feeding; selectively look for quality that will yield best children
Males: Sperm (small and cheap); indiscriminately fertilize as many females as possible |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A chemical that is secreted by one cell group. |
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|
Term
| What is the function of a hormone? |
|
Definition
| It travels through the bloodstream to act on cell and tissure targets by promoting increase, growth, and differentiation of cells while also modulating cell activity. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 glands that release hormones? |
|
Definition
Endocrine Glands: release hormones within the body
Exocrine Glands: use ducts to secrete fluids such as tears and sweat outside the body |
|
|
Term
| What are 2 Pituitary Glands? |
|
Definition
| Anterior Pituitary and Posterior Pituitary |
|
|
Term
| What is the anterior pituitary? |
|
Definition
| hormone secreted by thyroid, adrenal cortex, and gonad growth; adenohypophysis (pars tuberalis, pars intermedia, pard distalis) |
|
|
Term
| Hormones released from the hypothalamus are carried to the Anterior Pituitary which in turn releases what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 tropic hormones released by the Anterior Pituitary? |
|
Definition
| Prolaction, Gonadotropic Hormones (FSH, LH), Thyroid - stimulating hormone, ACTH, Growth Hormone, |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of Adrenocoricotropic Hormone (ACTH)? |
|
Definition
| controls adrenal cortex and steroid hormone release |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the thyroid - stimulating hormone (TSH)? |
|
Definition
| increases thyroid hormone release |
|
|
Term
| What is the functin of Follicle - Stimulating Hormone (FSH)? |
|
Definition
| stimulates egg- containing follicles, or sperm production |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the function of Luteinizing Hormone (LH)? |
|
Definition
| stimulates follicles to form a corpus luteum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an ovarian structure important in promoting pregnancy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stimulates lactation in females, and is involved in parental behavior |
|
|
Term
| What is the growth hormone (GH)? |
|
Definition
| somatotropin or somatotropic hormone influences growth, mostly during sleep. The stomach hormone ghrelin also evokes GH release. |
|
|
Term
| what is the posterior pituitary responsible for? |
|
Definition
| water balance/salt balance, neurohypophysis (infundibular stalk, pars nervosa), hormones (oxytocin/vasopressin) |
|
|
Term
| what is the posterior pituitary responsible for? |
|
Definition
| water balance/salt balance, neurohypophysis (infundibular stalk, pars nervosa), hormones (oxytocin/vasopressin) |
|
|
Term
| what is the posterior pituitary responsible for? |
|
Definition
| water balance/salt balance, neurohypophysis (infundibular stalk, pars nervosa), hormones (oxytocin/vasopressin) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reproductive and parenting behavior... uterine contraction, milk letdown reflex |
|
|
Term
| What does Vasopressin do? |
|
Definition
| "Arginine Vasopressin"/"AVP"/antidiuretic hormone "ADH"/increases blood pressure and inhibits urine formation |
|
|
Term
| What are 2 types of chemical communication? |
|
Definition
| Neurocrine Communication --> Synaptic/ Endocrine Communication --> a hormone released into the bloodstream to act on target tissues |
|
|
Term
| What are endocrine cells? |
|
Definition
| hormones that travel through the bloodstream and go to their target cell tissues |
|
|
Term
| What is Pheromone Communication? |
|
Definition
| between individuals of the same species; hormones released into the environment (animals.. dogs) |
|
|
Term
| What is Allomone Communication? |
|
Definition
| Chemicals released by one species and affects the behavior of other species (bee and flower) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 differences between neuronal and hormonal communication? |
|
Definition
Neuronal: precise destinations, rapid, synaptic cleft is small, digital (all or none), voluntary
Hormonal: throughout the body, slower, meter, analog, involuntary. |
|
|
Term
| What are some general principles of hormone actions? |
|
Definition
| 1. gradual 2. probability or intensity of behavior 3. multiple effects on several behaviors 4. receptor protein 5. circadian clocks |
|
|
Term
| What is the most important structure involved in homeostasis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are some inputs to the hypothalamus? |
|
Definition
| Nucleus of the solitary tract, reticular formation, retina, circumventricular organs |
|
|
Term
| Nucleus of the Solitary Tract |
|
Definition
| visceral sensory informaiton includes blood pressure and gut distention |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nucleus of the brainstem, inputs from the spinal cord, ( ex: skin temperature) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fibers from the optic nerve to suprachiasmatic nucleus: daylight. Regulates circadian rhythms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lack a clood-brain-barrier. This allows them to monitor substances in the blood that would normally be shirlded from neural tissue |
|
|
Term
| two main parts of the pituitary gland (hypophysis) |
|
Definition
| anterior and posterior pituitary |
|
|
Term
| Parts of the Anterior Pituitary: |
|
Definition
| Pars Tuberalis, Pars intermedia, and Pars distalis |
|
|
Term
| Parts of the Posterior Pituitary |
|
Definition
| Infundibullar Stalk and Pars nervosa |
|
|
Term
| Hormone Release VIA the posterior pituitary |
|
Definition
| 2 parts of the pituitary gland are sperate in function. The pituitary stalk, or infundibulum, connects the pituitary to the hypothalamus. The stalk contains blood vessels and many axons, which only extend to the posterior pituitary. |
|
|
Term
| Regulation of hormones produced by adrenal glands |
|
Definition
| the adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney and secrete hormones. IN mammals, the outer 80% of the gland is the adrenal cortex, and the core 20% is the adrenal medulla. |
|
|
Term
| What does the thyroid control? |
|
Definition
| how quickly the body burns energy, makes proteins, and how sensitive the body should be to other hormones. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 hormones produced by the thyroid glands? |
|
Definition
| thyroxine and triidothyronine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the release of TSH controlled by? |
|
Definition
| negative feedback from blood levels and by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| The thyronines act on nearly every cell in the body to do what? |
|
Definition
| increase the basal metabolic rate, affect preotein synthesis, help regulate long bone growth, neuronal maturation and increase the body's sensitivity to catecholamines such as adrenaline by permissiveness. |
|
|
Term
| What leads to heat generation in humans? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do Thyroid Hormones contain? |
|
Definition
| contain iodine and depend on its supply. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a swelling of the thyroid from iodine difficiency |
|
|
Term
| What can be caused by early thyroid deficiency? |
|
Definition
| cretinism (congentinal hypothyroidism) and mental retardation |
|
|
Term
| What is the most effective prevention of mental retardation? |
|
Definition
| treatment of thyroid deficiency |
|
|
Term
| What resembles psychiatric disorders? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| One type of ADHD involves decreased sensitivity to what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What can cause depression? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is Cushing's Disease? |
|
Definition
| A result of long - term excess of glucocoricoids ( involved in glucose metabolism), with symptoms of fatigue and depression |
|
|
Term
| What is Cushing's Disease? |
|
Definition
| A result of long - term excess of glucocoricoids ( involved in glucose metabolism), with symptoms of fatigue and depression |
|
|
Term
| What is Cushing's Disease? |
|
Definition
| A result of long - term excess of glucocoricoids ( involved in glucose metabolism), with symptoms of fatigue and depression |
|
|
Term
| What is Cushing's Disease? |
|
Definition
| A result of long - term excess of glucocoricoids ( involved in glucose metabolism), with symptoms of fatigue and depression |
|
|
Term
| What is Cushing's Disease? |
|
Definition
| A result of long - term excess of glucocoricoids ( involved in glucose metabolism), with symptoms of fatigue and depression |
|
|
Term
| What happens 6 weeks after conception? |
|
Definition
| indifferent gonads become ovaries or testes. Hormones secreted by gonads, mainly testes = direct sexual differentiation |
|
|
Term
| What is the SRY gene and what does it do? |
|
Definition
| Sex-determining Region on the Y chromosome --> develops testes: codes for the testes --> determining factor |
|
|
Term
| What happens if there is no SRY present? |
|
Definition
| ovary function ( default = female) |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 early tissues for both male and female structures in each embryo? |
|
Definition
| wolffian ducts and mullerian ducts |
|
|
Term
| What do the Wolffian Ducts and Mullerian Ducts connect the gonads to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the Mullerian Duct become in a female embryo? |
|
Definition
| fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina |
|
|
Term
| What does the Wolffian duct become in a Male embryo? |
|
Definition
| epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles; mullerian ducts shrink. |
|
|
Term
| Two hormones from the testes make the system masculine: |
|
Definition
| testosterone/Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of testosterone? |
|
Definition
| promotes development of the wolffian system; masculanizes structures in the utero ( prostate gland, sctrotum, penis) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an enzyme that converts testosterone into 5a-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and forms male genatalia |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of the anti-mullerian system (AMH)? |
|
Definition
| it induces the regression of the mullerian system |
|
|
Term
| What is Androgen - Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)? |
|
Definition
| defective gene produces abnormal andrgen receptors in an XY fetus; this causes the Wolffian system to not develop The Anti- Mullerian hormone prevents development of the female internal organs but on the outside the person will look female. |
|
|
Term
| In a person with AIS... they have: |
|
Definition
| a shallow vagina ( since the mullerian system is responsible for development of the upper 2/3 of the vagina); no ovaries, fallopian tubes or uterus. But strong female gender identity! Many marry an engage in routine female sexual behavior. Difference berween chromosomal sex and gender identity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| FSH and LH promote increased release of testosterone by the testes. Testosterone promotes developement of male secondary sex characteristics. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| FSH and LH stimulate estradiol production by the ovaries. Estradiol leads to female secondary sex characteristics |
|
|
Term
| What releases the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What inhbits GnRH release? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What stimulates the release of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) |
|
Definition
| exposure of female person (XX genes) to androgens before birth.. causes intersex appearance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| XO genotype (instead of XX or XY); random (not heritable); normal female appearance but abnormal ovaries = affects fertility. Short stature with folds of skin at neck.. normal intelligence with some spatial and memory deficits |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| XXY genotype; male appearance but needs hormonal treatment at puberty. Normal intelligence with some verbal cognitive difficulties; reduced fertility |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| low intelligence, may be violent, fertile but high chance of being abnormal, tall and lean with acne and some physical abnormalities |
|
|
Term
| When does sexual attraction occur/through what? |
|
Definition
| Sexual attraction occurs at times of reproduction through odors that reflect the estrogen levels in females and learned associations such as appearance. Appetitive behaviors establish: maintain or perform "ear-wiggling". Male behaviors include staying near the female sniffing, singing, and nest building. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produced at the beginning of the ovulatory cycle and are important for female preceptive behavior. |
|
|
Term
| A female without ovaries with respond perceptively to a combination of what treatments? |
|
Definition
| estrogen and progesterone |
|
|
Term
| Testosterone in women is produced by ______. Affect the rate of initiation of a sexual activity by women - but not the rate of receptivity. Affects sexual desire, arousal, and fantasies |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| brain structures may differ in homosexuals |
|
Definition
| some studies from INAH-3 nucleus of the pre-optic area - M>F... unclear if size is result or cause |
|
|
Term
| What are some fetal androgen exposure markers? |
|
Definition
| otoacoustic emissions, finger length patterns, eyeblinks, and skeletal features |
|
|
Term
| what is a system for storing and releasing glucose for energy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the principal sugar used for energy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is a form of glucose stored for a short term in the liver and muscles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is a pancreatic hormone that regulates glycogen? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pancreatic hormone --> mediates glycolysis --> the process of converting glycogen back into glucose when blood glucose levels drop |
|
|
Term
| What spans the cell membrane and interacts with insulin to bring glucose into the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| autoimmune attack on pancreas beta cells. Glycogen does not enter cells, sweet urine, thirst because of solute imbalance, fatigue, weight loss |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| middle age, insulin resistance. Gradual decline in amount of insulin produced, risk factor = obesity/high levels of fructose |
|
|
Term
| where are lipids (fats) for long - term storage deposited? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of converting fat to glucose and ketones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what else can proteins be converted into? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens when there is a lesion in the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)? |
|
Definition
| weight gain and picky eating. May disrupt pathways linking PVN and NST. Result in excess insulin production. |
|
|
Term
| Eating Disorders.. most common to least common |
|
Definition
| binge eating, bulimia nervosa, aneorexis nervosa (elevated CART levels) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| biological rhythm that happens once a day |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| biological rhythms that happen various times daily |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a shift in activity pattern in response to a synchronizing stimulus (food/light) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process of shifting the rhythm |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| process of shifting the rhythm |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| adjusts circadian rhythms... external cues used to synchronize internal clocks with the environment --> "time-give" (food/light availability) |
|
|
Term
| without external cues of sleep we are on about 25 hour cycles known as: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| adjustments to phase delays are easier than phase advances (CA-NY > NY-CA) |
|
|
Term
| SCN --> Suprachiasmatic Nucleus |
|
Definition
| Body's Master Internal Clock |
|
|
Term
| What is isolated and maintains a circadian rhythm.. making it independent of zeitgebers? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Retinohypothalamic Pathway |
|
Definition
| provides information about light through the retinl ganglion cels to the SCN |
|
|
Term
| what keeps track of time independent of light with the internal protein clock |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Moving of the gene activity and their protein productin and degradation becomes the "ticking of what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are two proteins involved in circadian rhythms? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which cells found in the retinal ganglion cells (RGC) detect light and release glutamate in the SCN? Afterwards, the Glutamate triggers events that promote the production of the Per protein, which in turn shifts the clock and the animal's behavior. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| attaches to Per and Tim proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| released only at night by the retina and pineal gland |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| released during deep sleep (SWS) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| released mostly in the morning and little throughout the day |
|
|
Term
| What are the biological functions of sleep? |
|
Definition
| Energy Conservation, Predator Avoidance, Body Restoration (replenishes metabolic requirements (ex:proteins)), memory consolidation |
|
|
Term
| what is conserved during sleep? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During sleep, there is a reduction in: |
|
Definition
| muscular tension, heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, rate of respiration |
|
|
Term
| neurogenesis occurs when? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| effects of sleep deprivation |
|
Definition
| difficulty in concentrating, increased irritability, episodes of disorientation |
|
|
Term
| Sleep deprivation diseases compromise immune system and lead to what? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inherited// midlife people stop sleeping; die 7 - 24 months later. Caused by prion protein plaques in the anterior and dorsomedial thalamus |
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Term
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Definition
| a physiological state of equilibrium or balance |
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Term
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Definition
| a physiological state of equilibrium or balance |
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Term
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Definition
| defended by regulatory systems in order to achieve homeostasis (temp., fluid levels, weight, etc.) |
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Term
| deviation from homeostasis: |
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Definition
| detected by nervous system--> appropiate internal adjustments are made and behavior is designed to motivate the regaining of the ideal state. |
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Term
| what is critical for all biological processes? |
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Definition
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Term
| high temperature disrupts: |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| slowed reactions; damage to cell membranes except for species that produce "anti-freeze" |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| surface area = heat ______ |
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Definition
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Term
| surface area = heat ______ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| what are two ways of maintaing body temperatures? |
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Definition
| ectotherms and endotherms |
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Term
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Definition
| amphibians, reptiles, fish; external factors (ex:sunlight) |
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Term
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Definition
| mammals, birds; internal activity and external factors |
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Term
| Internal (endothermic) responses to cold |
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Definition
| shivering, blood vessels constrict, release of thyroid hormone, activation of brown fat |
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Term
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Definition
| muscle twitches which produce heat with the cost of high energy |
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Term
| blood vessel constriction is caused by: |
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Definition
| keeping the blood away from the skin where hear loss is maximal |
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Term
| release of thyroid hormone in response to cold (endothermic) is done by: |
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Definition
| leading to greater overall metabolic activity, warming the body. |
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Term
| Activation of brown fat are: |
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Definition
| fat cells rich with mitochondria, to increase metabolic activity. |
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Term
| Internal (endothermic) responses to heat |
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Definition
| perspiration (cooling the skin through evaporation), humans lose about 1 liter of sweat in an average day, in species that do not perspire, animals may pant or lick their fur. Blood vessels dilate (allowing people more heat loss, causing people to often become very red) |
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Term
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Definition
| blood vessels constriction in response to cold is too extreme, leading to a lack in circulation in affected digits, causing them to appear white |
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Term
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Definition
| body temperature increases beyond normal limits, causing confusion, faint , sweating ends (above 40 c / 104 f) |
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Term
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Definition
| body temperature decreases beyond normal limits (below 35c/95f(, causing uncontrolled shivering, pain, etc. |
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Term
| in temperatures lower than 31c/87.8f |
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Definition
| pupils dilate, drunkeness behavior, consciousness lost |
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Term
| what has become a common method of reproducing brain damage following cardiac arrest or open heart surgery? |
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Definition
| deliberately producing mild hypothermia |
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Term
| What regulates the internal temperature? |
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Definition
| brain stem, spinal cord, and hypothalamus |
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Term
| Sensitivity: spinal cord = ____/hypothalamus = _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| What receives input from skin sensors, the spinal cord, and thermo-receptors in it and is overriden by heating/cooling? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the 2 areas of the hypothalamus that participate in temperature regulation? |
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Definition
| POA and Posterior Hypothalamus |
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Term
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Definition
| promotes heat loss: perspiration, dilation of blood vessels |
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Term
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Definition
| promotes heat conservation: shivering, constriction of blood vessels |
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Term
| 3 types of neurons in the POA |
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Definition
| warm-sensitive, cold-sensitive, temp.-senstive |
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Term
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Definition
| with temp increases their activity increases, also inhibiting cold-sensitive neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| with temp decrease their firing rate increases. The inhibition from warm-sensitive neurons also decreases |
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Term
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Definition
| retain a relatively constant activity level |
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Term
| What do temperature set points possibly reflect? |
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Definition
| a comparison of the activity of temperature - sensitive and insensitive neurons. |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical produced by bacteria/viruses that contribute to the production of fever; enter the brain near the hypothalamus, where the BBB is weak; in the POA, they inhibit the activity of warm-sensitive neurons, incrrasing the body core temperature and leading to fever symptoms |
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Term
| Water compartments in the body |
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Definition
| intracellular compartment --> fluid within the cells (67%)/extracellular compartment --> blood (7%), interstitial (26%), CSF (>1%) |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical molecules dissolved in fluid |
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Term
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Definition
| a solute that breaks into ions when it is dissolved (sodium, calcium, potassium, chloride) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| 2 solutions with equal concentrations of solutes are: |
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Definition
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Term
| intracellular (high ______) and extracellular (high ______) fluids have different ionic concentraions, their total rrelative concentration of solutes is the same (aka they are isotonic) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the passive movement of water molecules from one place to another |
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Term
| osmotic pressure moves water across a _____________ membrane, along its concentration gradient, from an area with lower concentration of solutes to an area with higher concentration |
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Definition
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Term
| an isotonic salt solution is about 0.9% or (__________ _________), the same as mammalian fluids |
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Definition
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Term
| an Isotonic chemical solution has: |
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Definition
| 2 solutions with EQUAL concentrations of solutes (although the identity of solutes may differ) |
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Term
| A hypotonic chemical solution is: |
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Definition
| a solution with a LOWER concentration of solutes than a reference solution |
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Term
| What is hypertonic chemical solution? |
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Definition
| a solution with a higher concentration of solutes than a reference solution |
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Term
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Definition
| one of a pair of structures located in the lower back responsible for maintaining fluid balance and for producing urine. Blood enter the kidneys, where it is filtered through the nephrons; impurities and excess water and sodium are removed by the nephrons and send to the bladder for excretion as urine. The filtered blood returns to the circulation |
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Term
|
Definition
in freshwater: hypotonic /tear cell membranes
In saltwater:hypertonic/cell dehydration |
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Term
| How many liters of water do humans need a day? |
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Definition
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Term
| 2 internal cues that trigger thirst: |
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Definition
| osmotic and hypovolemic thirst |
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Term
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Definition
| cellular dehydration --> increase in the solute concentration of the intracellular fluid/from increase in the solute concentration in the extracellular fluid causing water to leave the cells |
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Term
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Definition
| low volume --> drops in the VOLUME of the extracecllular fluid |
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Term
| which type of thirst is the most common? |
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Definition
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Term
| which type of thirst is used as an emergency backup system? |
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Definition
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Term
| Mechanisms of Osmotic Thirst |
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Definition
| blood becomes hypertonic, due to: eating a salty meal, diabetes mellitus. This causes water to leave the cells, in an effort to regain the isotonic state. |
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Term
| what in the brain detects cell dehydration? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| The OVLT and Osmoreception |
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Definition
| The OVLT (Organum Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis (OVLT) is located near the third ventricle, and includes osmosensory neurons. The BBB is weak in this area. If the fluid surrounding OVLT cells becomes hypertonic (OVLT cells lose water) - their firing rate increases. And if thier surrounding becomes hypotonic - firing rate decreases |
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Term
| Mechanisms of Hypovolemic Thirst |
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Definition
| mostly occurs due to internal bleeding or severe injury. Drops in vlood volume are accompanied by drops in blood pressure. Baroreceptors in blood vessels, the hearty, and the kidneys detect the drop in blood pressure. This initiates the feeling of thirst and causes the kidneys to conserve fluid |
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Term
| Hormones help conserve fluids --> pathway |
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Definition
| osmotic or hypovolemic thirst is sensed --> osmoreceptors/baroreceptors stimulate the posterior pituitary gland to release ADH (vasopressin) --> ADH causes the kidneys to reduce Urine and release Renin --> renin makes the angiotensin II which causes blood vessels to contrict and aldosterone release from the adrenal glands--> aldosterone signals the kidneys to retain sodium |
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Term
| Normal _____ _______ _____ are very important |
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Definition
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Term
| What can occur if excretion of sodium by the kidneys is inadequate? |
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Definition
| high blood pressure and stroke can occur |
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Term
| Lower than normal sodium levels are a risk to health: true or false? |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| a condition characterized by low sodium and low fluid levels. Can also be caused due to failure of the heart or kidneys, tumors. Leads to nausea, vomiting, cramps, disorientation and can even cause seizures, coma, death. Can occur due to extreme endurance |
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Term
| 2 distinct classes of sleep: |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| can be divided into four stages and is characterized by slow - wave EEG activity |
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Term
| Rapid-eye-movement sleep (REM) |
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Definition
| characterized by small amplitude, fast-EEG waves, no postural tension, and rapid eye movements |
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Term
| Electrical brain potentials can be used to classify levels of ______ and states of sleep |
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Definition
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Term
| EEG (electroencephalography) |
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Definition
| records electrical activity in the brain |
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Term
| Electro-oculography (EOG) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| In a typical night of young adult sleep: |
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Definition
| sleep ranges from 7 - 8 hours, 45-50% is stage 2 sleep/20% is REM sleep . Cycles last 90-110 minutes, but cycles early in the night have more stage 3 and 4 SWS, and later cycles have more REM sleep |
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Term
| As people age, total time asleep declines and number of _____ increases. |
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Definition
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Term
| Locus Coeruleus (norepinephrine) |
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Definition
| active when awake, less when SWS, silent during REM |
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Term
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Definition
| accumulation of serotonin in ventrolateral preoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus, eventually deactivating the wakefulness circuits |
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Term
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Definition
| throughout the brain - is also related to sleep debt. Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist!!! |
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Term
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Definition
| a group of structures near the bottom of the front of the brain, including nucleus basalis, diagonal band of Broca, and medial septal nuclei |
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Term
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Definition
| frequent sleep attacks, excessive daytime sleepiness, do not go through SWS before REM sleep, cataplexy ( loss of muscle tone). |
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Term
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Definition
| brief inability to move just before falling asleep, or just after waking up. May be caused by the pontine center continuing to signal for muscle relaxation, even when awake. |
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Term
| Sleep disorders associated with SWS |
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Definition
| night terrors and sleep enuresis (bed-wetting)... stages 3 & 4 = sleepwalking (somnambulism) |
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Term
| REM behavior disorder (RBD) |
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Definition
| characterized by organized behavior, from an asleep person. it usually begins after age 50 and may be followed by beginning symptoms of Parkinson's disease. This suggests damage in the brain motor systems, or degeneration of the pons. |
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Term
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Definition
| breathing may stop or slow down - blood oxygen drops rapidly.. accompanied by snoring |
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Term
| What may be effective in treating insomnia? |
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Definition
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Term
| Sleeping is associated with: |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| frightening dreams that awaken the sleeper from REM sleep |
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Term
|
Definition
| sudden arousals from stage 3 or 4 SWS sleep, marked by fear and autonomic activity- especially prevalent in children |
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Term
| Types of muscles: smooth and striated |
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Definition
| smooth muscles: digestive tract, arteries, reproductive system/striated muscles: cardiac muscles, and skeletal muscles |
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Term
| Skeletal Muscles are made up of: |
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Definition
| individual, long, thin muscle fibers; contain nuclei/exciteable membrane, receptors for acetylcholine (open sodium channels that trigger action potential causing a twitch) |
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Term
| 3 types of myosin filament |
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Definition
| type I, 2A, and 2B fibers |
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Term
| Type I fibers (slow twitch) |
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Definition
| legs, back; use aerobic metabplism, participate in endurance movements |
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Term
| Type IIa (medium) and Type IIb (fast twitch) |
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Definition
| arms, shoulders; use anaerobic metabolism, participate in brief, powerful movements |
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Term
| The effects of exercise on muscle |
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Definition
| muscles respond to damage - caused by exercise - by producing more actin and myosin filaments. This increases muscle size, but not matter. |
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Term
| young muscles are more _________ and fiber types are evenly distributed |
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Definition
|
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Term
| muscles can do one thing ________ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| the gray matter of the spinal cord is larger in segments serving the arms and legs ue to large numbers of _________ ___________ __________ |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| an alpha motor neuron and all the fibers in it |
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Term
| a motor unit includes fibers of only ______ type |
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Definition
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Term
| the size of a motor unit corresponds to its __________ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| neurons serving type ___ fibers have small cell bodies, innervate few fibers and produce little force |
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Definition
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Term
| neurons servings type ____ fibers have larger cell bodies, innervate more fibers and produce greater force |
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Definition
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Term
| a single action potential may be sufficient to produce a _________. |
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Definition
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Term
| ______ lasts longer than action potentials, allowing temporal summation |
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Definition
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Term
| To start a movement, alpha motor neurons receive input from: |
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Definition
| muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, brainstem and motor cortex neurons, spinal interneurons |
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Term
| what provides information about joint position and movement? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| skin receptors are also capable of providing information about __________ |
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Definition
|
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Term
| free nerve endings signal pain from extreme ________ positions |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| an involuntary response to a stimulus |
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Term
| a reflex involves neurons at the ____ and spinal cord levels |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| require only 2 neurons and a single synapse |
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Term
|
Definition
| require more than 2 neurons |
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Term
| the withdrawal reflex is also known as the ____ reflex |
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Definition
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Term
| an example of a childhood reflex that becomes inhibited is _________ __________ |
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Definition
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Term
| What directly affects the activity of muscles? |
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Definition
| alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord |
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Term
| what sends information to alpha motor neurons? |
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Definition
| interneurons and stretch receptors/brain |
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Term
| brain motor control of LATERAL PATHWAY movement: |
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Definition
- connects the primary motor cortex with the spinal motor neurons
- responsible primarily for fine voluntary movements (ex: tool using) |
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Term
| brain motor control of movement: VENTROMEDIAL PATHWAY |
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Definition
-originates in the brainstem
- responsible for subconscious, automatic movements of the torso and head |
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Term
|
Definition
part of the lateral pathway
cell bodies in the motor cortex |
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Term
|
Definition
| part of the lateral pathway; cells from the red (rubro) nucleus, which by themselves receive substantial information from the cortex |
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Term
| the motor cortex in the lateral pathway sends direct ( coticospinal tract) and indirect (rubrospinal tract) information to ____ ______ _____ in the spinal cord |
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Definition
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Term
| _________ __________ is the activation of neurons in specific parts of M1 that cause movements of specific body parts |
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Definition
| somatotropic organization |
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|
Term
| the cerebellum is involved in: |
|
Definition
| coordination of various muscles and movements, to provide smooth movements;sequencing and timing of complex movements;body posture |
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|
Term
| the 3 nuclei of the basal ganglia |
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Definition
| globus pallidus, putamen, caudate nucleus |
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|
Term
| input to the basal ganglia is through the : _______ and _______ |
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Definition
| cortex & substantia nigra |
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|
Term
| input to the basal ganglia is through the : _______ and _______ |
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Definition
| cortex & substantia nigra |
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|
Term
| output from the basal ganglia is through the: |
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Definition
| motor cortex, thalamus, nuclei of the brain stem that contribute to the ventromedial pathway |
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Term
| does the basal ganglia have any connections with the spinal cord? yes or no? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| basal ganglia is involved in movement disorders such as : |
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Definition
| parkinsons and huntingtons |
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Term
| what serves as a "filter" for voluntary movement by having an inhibitory influence on a number of motor systems |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what is involved in action selection? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| the basal ganglia is involved in motor - control and ______. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| the basal ganglia is involved in motor - control and ______. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what re the 4 ventromedial pathways and where do they originate? |
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Definition
they originate in various parts of the brainstem...
tectospinal tract, vestibulospinal tract, pontine reticulospinal tract, medullary reticulospinal tract |
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Term
| The motor cortex contains 3 main areas: |
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Definition
| primary motor cortex (M!) --> on the preccentral gyrus. the main source of voluntary motor control. Premotor Area (PMA) and supplementary motor area (SMA) |
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Term
| what part of the brain is responsible for deciding to move? |
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Definition
| prefrontal and parietal cortex |
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Term
| SMA and PMA plan movement, with input from ______ and ____ _______ |
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Definition
| thalamus and basal ganglia |
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Term
| ________ _________ _______ receives information from SMA and PMA, and from the primary somatosensory cortex |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| primary motor cortex sends signals via ____ _______ (direct/indirect) |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| lateral pathways activate _______ ________ _______ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| alpha motor neurons tell muscles to ________ |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| movement is encoded by ________ of neurons rather than individual cells |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a combination of direction and strength |
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Term
| the direction of the vector is the direction of the ___________, and the length of the vector is the activity strength |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| primary motor neurons control movement as a function of cell population activity, rather than as a function of ___ _____ ______. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| neurons in the primary motor cortex encode: |
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Definition
| kinematic and kinetic parameters |
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Term
| neurons in the primary motor cortex encode: |
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Definition
| kinematic and kinetic parameters |
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Term
| kinematic movement parameters |
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Definition
| position, velocity, acceleration, path - i.e.,movement in space |
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Term
|
Definition
| muscle forces and joints rotations (ex: how to produce the movement) |
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Term
|
Definition
| discharge when making a movement towards an object & discharge when the observing someone else making the same action towards the same object |
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Term
|
Definition
| active during self - movement or viewing intentional movement of others |
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Term
| Mirror Neurons Systems (MNS) |
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Definition
| imagining or remembering motor acts activates motor areas: primary sensorimotor cortex, dorsal and ventral premotor cortex, lateral cerebellum, basal ganglia |
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|
Term
| mirror neurons are found in ______ _______ |
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Definition
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