Term
| What is the Central Nervous System CNS made up of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the Peripheral Nervous System PNS made up of? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is Scientific Inference? |
|
Definition
| observe the consequences of unobservable processes, and logically infer from this |
|
|
Term
| What is the Somatic Nervous System made up of? |
|
Definition
Afferent Nerves
Efferent Nerves |
|
|
Term
| What is the Automatic Nervous System made up of? |
|
Definition
Afferent Nerves
Efferent Nerves |
|
|
Term
| What is the PNS (nerves and ganglia) made up of? |
|
Definition
Automatic Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System |
|
|
Term
| What is the Automatic Nervous System made up of? |
|
Definition
Parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system |
|
|
Term
| What are the 12 cranial nerves? |
|
Definition
Olfactory
Optic
Occulomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Abducens
Facial
Auditory (sensory)
Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Spinal Accessory
Hypoglossal |
|
|
Term
| what does the Olfactory nerve do? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does the Occulomotor nerve do? |
|
Definition
motor, some sensory
eyelid movements
pupil constriction |
|
|
Term
| what does the Optic nerve do? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does the Trochlear nerve do? |
|
Definition
motor, some sensory
superior oblique eye muscle (rolls your eyes) |
|
|
Term
| what does the Trigeminal nerve do? |
|
Definition
mixed (mainly sensory)
three branches:
Opthalmic: sensory, from eye, forehead, top of head,
upper eyelid
Maxillary: sensory - nose, teeth, gums
Mandibular: mixed – teeth sensations, moves jaw muscles |
|
|
Term
| what does the Abducens nerve do? |
|
Definition
motor, some sensory
lateral rectus muscle of the eye,
eyelid movements |
|
|
Term
| what does the Facial nerve do? |
|
Definition
mixed – facial muscles
expressions, lip moments, glands of the head, tongue sensations (taste) |
|
|
Term
| what does the Auditory nerve do? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does the Glossopharyngeal nerve do? |
|
Definition
mixed – tongue pharynx
sensations - pharynx movements, speech/taste |
|
|
Term
| what does the Vagus nerve do? |
|
Definition
mixed – parasympathetic motor
innervations of most viscera – sensations from viscera |
|
|
Term
| what does the Spinal Accessory nerve do? |
|
Definition
motor, some sensory
muscles of the neck and shoulders |
|
|
Term
| what does the Hypoglossal nerve do? |
|
Definition
motor, some sensory
muscles of the tongue |
|
|
Term
| Sympathetic Nervous System nerves originate from the _____ region and the ____ region. They send information to ganglia near the _____. What does this do? |
|
Definition
thoracic and lumbar
spinal cord
energy (stress): stimulates, organizes, mobilizes, arouses |
|
|
Term
| Parasympathetic Nervous System nerves originate from the _____ and the _____ region. They send information to ganglia near the _____. What does this do? |
|
Definition
brain and sacral
target organ
conserves energy, calms, relaxes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tough outer layer of the Meninges |
|
|
Term
| What is the Arachnoid Layer? |
|
Definition
| web like structure, middle layer of the Meninges |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thin, adheres closely to surface of CNS, inner layer of the Meninges |
|
|
Term
| How is the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Protected? |
|
Definition
Bone protection: Skull & Vertebrae
Meninges
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Blood Brain Barrier |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
inflammation of the meninges; caused by virus, bacteria,
etc. Can be life-threatening because of proximity to brain/spinal cord. |
|
|
Term
| Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) creates a fluid cushion around the _____. It us produced by the _____. It is contained in _____ and _____. It is absorbed into the _____, then drains into _____. |
|
Definition
brain
Choroid Plexus
subarachnoid space and brain cavities
blood in dural sinuses
jugular veins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| if a tumor blocks this drainage of CSF into jugular veins |
|
|
Term
| How does the Blood Brain Barrier protect the brain? |
|
Definition
blood vessels protect from chemical agents
capillaries in the brain lack gaps that permit the free-flow of substances |
|
|
Term
| WHat are the 2 classes of Cells in the CNS & PNS? |
|
Definition
Neuronal Cells (neurons)
Glial Cells (Glia) |
|
|
Term
| what are nodes of ranvier? |
|
Definition
| gaps in between the myelin covering |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they transport within the cell |
|
|
Term
| what is found in the synaptic button/terminal? |
|
Definition
| microtubules, mitochondria, golgi complex, synaptic vesicles |
|
|
Term
| Where is the golgi complex highly represented? |
|
Definition
| In the synaptic button/terminal (this is where a lot of transport occurs) |
|
|
Term
| how permeable is the cell membrane? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between a Unipolar neuron and Bipolar neuron? |
|
Definition
Unipolar: only one process originates from the cell body
Bipolar: two than one process originates from the cell body |
|
|
Term
| What is the choroid Plexus? |
|
Definition
| a network of blood vessels on Pia mater that protrude into brain cavities |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between a Multipolar Neuron and a Multipolar Interneuron? |
|
Definition
Multipolar Neuron: many processes originate from the cell body
Multipolar Interneuron: no axon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| support, nourish, and functionally interact with neurons |
|
|
Term
| What are Satellite Cells (PNS) ? |
|
Definition
| type of Glial cell, Support Neurons in ganglia |
|
|
Term
| What are Schwann Cells (PNS) ? |
|
Definition
type of Glial cell, Type of Satellite Cells
Myelinization
guide during regeneration |
|
|
Term
| What are Oligodendrocytes (CNS) ? |
|
Definition
type of Glial cell, Wrap around Axons
involved in Myelinization |
|
|
Term
| What are Astrocytes or Astroglia (CNS) ? |
|
Definition
type of Glial cell, Contact btw blood vessels and neurons, they transport nourishment from the blood to the neuron and transport waste to the blood
they form a large foot which has a large surface area for exchange |
|
|
Term
| What are Microglia (CNS) ? |
|
Definition
type of Glial cell, Act like phagocytes
Immune Responses |
|
|
Term
| Golgi Stain ( potassium dichromate, silver nitrate): |
|
Definition
neurons (body + axons) turn black
not very precise |
|
|
Term
| Nissl Stain (Cresyl violet ): |
|
Definition
cell bodies turn purple; can see where they are, how many
no internal structure – not specific to neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Only myelinated nerves/fibers turn black |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
can track the path of fibers
Inject a dye (fluorescent), wait, see where it went
Anterograde (cell bodies innervated area)
Retrograde (innervated area cell body) |
|
|
Term
| where is the white vs. grey matter located in the spinal cord? |
|
Definition
the grey matter is in the center (H shape)
the white matter surrounds |
|
|
Term
| what are the functions of the medulla oblongata (myelencephalon) |
|
Definition
Sleep / arousal
Attention
Movement
Muscular Tone
Cardiac Reflexes
Circulatory Reflexes
Respiratory Reflexes |
|
|
Term
| MEDULLA OBLONGATA what are the main structures? |
|
Definition
Mainly tracts
Reticular Formation |
|
|
Term
| METENCEPHALON what are the main structures? |
|
Definition
Pons = Bridge (Tracts + Reticular Formation)
Cerebellum (= little brain) |
|
|
Term
| what are the functions of the Pons |
|
Definition
Passage of fibers
Origin of 3 cranial nerves
(Abducens, Facial, Trigeminal) |
|
|
Term
| what are the functions of the Tegmentum |
|
Definition
Motor Control
Balance and Coordination
Pain Centre |
|
|
Term
| what are the main structure of the MESENCEPHALON |
|
Definition
Tectum (= roof)
Tegmentum |
|
|
Term
| what are the structures of the Tegmentum? |
|
Definition
Reticular Formation
Periaqueductal Grey: pain
Cerebral Acqueduct
Substantia Nigra: motor
Red Nucleus: motor |
|
|
Term
| what are the structures of the DIENCEPHALON? |
|
Definition
Thalamus
Hypothalamus (hypo = below) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sensory Relay Centre
(part of the DIENCEPHALON) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Controls motivated behaviors
(part of the DIENCEPHALON)
-Some hypothalamic nuclei have Neurosecretory functions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| keeps the two hemispheres together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
separated into two hemispheres divided by a longitudinal fissure)
Cerebral Cortex
Limbic System
Basal Ganglia
sensory interpretation
complex cognitive processes (learning, speaking, decision-making, personality, etc) |
|
|
Term
| What are the main structures of the limbic system (6) |
|
Definition
Amygdala (= almond)
Hippocampus
Fornix (a tract)
Cingulate Cortex
Septum
Mammillary Bodies |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between Pyramidal Cells and Stellate Cells |
|
Definition
Pyramidal Cells: pyramid shaped body, multipolar neuron, 1 big apical dendrite, 1 very long axon
Stellate Cells: small, star shaped, interneuron, short axon or no axon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
no!
not all cortex is neocortex- the hippocampus (archicortex, only 3 layers) |
|
|
Term
| What are the main structures of the BASAL GANGLIA? (6) |
|
Definition
Amygdala
Caudate
Putamen
Globus Pallidus
Striatum
Nucleus accumbens |
|
|
Term
| What are the main functions of the BASAL GANGLIA? |
|
Definition
Voluntary motor responses
Reward |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Structures that absorb x-rays differently show up different on film
It only works when there is a high contrast (e.g. bones vs soft tissue - gun vs clothes)
Not good for brain scans because various structures of the brain differ only slightly from one another in absorption of x-rays |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Injection of a contrast medium (e.g. a radio opaque dye)
enhanced structure to background difference |
|
|
Term
| X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) |
|
Definition
rotating x-ray takes many pictures
2d images combine to create 3d imaging |
|
|
Term
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
|
Definition
Radio frequency waves align hydrogens in water molecules
Aligned hydrogens emit a measurable magnetic signal
Both 2-D and 3-D images; clearer and more detailed than CT |
|
|
Term
| Positron Emission Tomography |
|
Definition
radioactive compound (2-DG similar to glucose) is injected
it degrades slowly and accumulates in active cells
the stronger the signal, the more active the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fMRI measures increases in oxygen flow to active areas of the brain (oxygenated blood has magnetic properties) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
radioactive compound (2-DG similar to glucose) is injected
it degrades slowly and accumulates in active cells
the stronger the signal, the more active the cell |
|
|
Term
| What is Magnetoencephalography and how does it compare to fMRI |
|
Definition
changes in brain activity based on changes in electrical signal from tiny magnetic fields on the scalp
faster than fMRI but worse spatial resolution |
|
|
Term
| What is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)? |
|
Definition
a “pointy” magnetic field stimulates small cortical regions
and observe behavioral effects
many pulses can create lasting effects |
|
|
Term
| which way to Visualizing the Living Human Brain is sometimes used to help patients with depression |
|
Definition
| Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| electric response correlated with the tension of the muscle |
|
|
Term
| what is Electrooculography |
|
Definition
| changes in potential caused by eye movement |
|
|
Term
| What is an advantage of using Anesthetics (e.g. lidocaine) or Cryogenic blockade |
|
Definition
| they are temporary so you can test the same individual before and after |
|
|
Term
| Why are Aspiration lesions and Radio-frequency/electrical lesions less popular? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a part of the cell is extracted with a glass pipette by gentle suction, and can then be used to examine the inside of the cell by rupturing the cell membrane
or you can remove a small amount of the cell membrane |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between Intracellular unit recording and Extracellular unit recording |
|
Definition
Intracellular unit recording: Membrane potential of a neuron
Extracellular unit recording: Firing of a neuron |
|
|
Term
| What is Invasive EEG recording? Is it an example of In vivo or in vitro? |
|
Definition
electrodes are implanted into the brain (less noise than recordings from outside the brain).
In vivo. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 Routes of drug administration |
|
Definition
Oral
Intragastric (deliver drugs with a cannulae into the stomach)
Transdermic (through the skin, e.g. nicotine patches)
Injections/Cannulae/Capsules/Minipumps: |
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between systemic and localized drug administration? |
|
Definition
systemic: affect the entire system and cross the bbb
localized: affects only a certain part |
|
|
Term
What is the difference between these kinds of injections:
Intraperitoneal
Intramuscular
Subcutaneous
Intravenous
Intracerebral |
|
Definition
Intraperitoneal- into the abdomen (in animals)
Intramuscular- through a muscle
Subcutaneous- drug is delivered just under the skin
Intravenous- into a vein
Intracerebral- need stereotaxic surgery, inject into the brain (Intraventricular- in the CSF, generalized effect & Intraparenchymal- inject into a certain brain part) |
|
|
Term
| what are 2 ways of Measuring chemical activity in the brain |
|
Definition
1. 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) technique: Inject radioactive 2-DG and do an Autoradiography during the Behavior of interest
2. Cerebral dialysis/Microdialysis: collect extracellular fluid in live animals and measure concentration of specific chemicals |
|
|
Term
| what is used for Locating neurotransmitters and receptors? (3) |
|
Definition
1. Dye or radioactive labels (e.g., autoradiography)
2. Immunocytochemistry – based on the binding
of labeled protein-specific antibodies
3. In situ hybridization – uses labeled RNA to locate neurons with complementary mRNA |
|
|
Term
What are these examples of?
example: green fluorescent protein in jellyfish
example: brainbow mice |
|
Definition
| Dye or radioactive labels for Locating neurotransmitters and receptors |
|
|
Term
| What is In situ hybridization? |
|
Definition
uses labeled RNA to locate neurons with complementary mRNA
create a strand of RNA that is opposite pair to the sequence
the radioactively labeled probe will find it’s pair |
|
|
Term
| What are the findings of the Sodium amytal test? |
|
Definition
– Dominant hemisphere anesthetized: no speech
– Non-dominant hemisphere anesthetized: minor speech problems |
|
|
Term
| what are the findings of the Dichotic Listening Test for Lateralization of Language |
|
Definition
– Digits spoken to Dominant hemisphere, greater recall
– Digits spoken to non-dominant hemisphere, less recall |
|
|
Term
| What is implicit memory and what are the two sub-categories? |
|
Definition
unconscious
procedural & priming |
|
|
Term
| What is explicit memory and what are the two sub-categories? |
|
Definition
conscious
semantic (general knowledge) & episodic (specific personal events and their context) |
|
|
Term
| What is the Repetition Priming Test and what does it test? |
|
Definition
Tests of Memory
–Study this list of word
–Complete a list of word fragments
–Previously seen words are completed better
–Often unconscious |
|
|
Term
What are these examples of
– E.g. replace sounds made in the back of the mouth like "k" and "g" for those in the front of the mouth like "t" and "d" (e.g., saying "tup" for "cup" or "das" for "gas").
– Remember the pronunciation of words that do not
follow rules (e.g. come, tongue)
– Pronunciation of non-words. E.g. trapple, fleeming |
|
Definition
Phonology: Tests of Linguistic Functions
– Reading aloud test to detect errors in pronunciation |
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between Syntax and Semantics? |
|
Definition
• Syntax
– Tests for grammatical rules
• Semantics
– Asking about the meaning of words |
|
|
Term
| What is Perseveration error in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test? |
|
Definition
Test for Frontal Lobe Function
– Draw one card at a time and sort them
– Experimenter says whether well sorted
– Patient guesses the sorting rule (e.g. color)
– Experimenter changes the rule (e.g shape)
– If Patient cannot adjust the have Perseveration error, and this is an issue of the frontal lobe |
|
|
Term
| what is the Paired-image Subtraction Technique? |
|
Definition
It identifies the brain region of a cognitive
activity of interest, above other activations
1) Compare PET or fMRI images during pairs of cognitive
tasks, differing from each other in only one constitutive
cognitive process.
2) Subtract brain activity during one task from brain
activity during other task
3) Brain activity for process of interest is obtained |
|
|
Term
| what is the concept of Species-common behaviors? |
|
Definition
| design test in ways that are natural for that species |
|
|
Term
| How do you perform Tests of Activity in animals? |
|
Definition
asses movement:
Home Cage: running on wheel
Open field test: total activity |
|
|
Term
| How do you perform Tests of Anxiety in animals? (3) |
|
Definition
Open field test: the mouse does not like to be out in the open, and if anxious it will stay in the corner
Elevated plus maze: mice fear the open arms of the maze
Dark Light Test: mice fear the brightly lit spaces |
|
|
Term
| how is aggression tested in rats? (intruder vs. dominant animal) |
|
Definition
Intruder Paradigm of Aggression (dominant animal)
attacks and bites
Direct or Sideways Approaches
Dominance Behaviors (e.g. pushes)Dominant individual
Intruder Paradigm of Defensive Behavior (Intruder)
Upright defensive pushing posture
Escapes
Freezing -lay on back (common in rats) |
|
|
Term
| How is sexual behaviour measured in animals (male vs. female)? |
|
Definition
Male sexual Behavior
- Intromissions
- Thrusts
- Ejaculations
Female sexual behavior
- Receptive Behavior
- Proceptive Behavior (approach a male, and wiggle ears)
- Lordosis (arched back posture) |
|
|
Term
| How is Social Recognition in animals tested? |
|
Definition
| Preferential investigation of novel mouse/rat |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between pavlovian and operant conditioning? |
|
Definition
–Pavlovian Conditioning: a conditioned stimulus elicits a response
–Operant Conditioning: the response that is rewarded increases |
|
|
Term
| What is Conditioned Taste Avoidance? |
|
Definition
A type of Semi-natural Learning.
Animal quickly (1 trial) learns to avoid a novel taste if it causes sickness, even with a time delay. |
|
|
Term
| What is the Radial Arm Maze? What are the 3 things it tests for (and what errors indicate this) |
|
Definition
A type of Semi-natural Learning.
Tests reference memory: Rats learn to enter the arms that normally have food. (error when rat enters arm that never has food)
Working memory: where have you been today already to get food. (error when rat enters arm they have already been to)
Spatial learning: rats use external cues |
|
|
Term
| What is the Morris Water Maze? |
|
Definition
A type of Semi-natural Learning.
Rats enter opaque water and swim until the find the hidden platform. They use external cues, used for reference memory) |
|
|
Term
| What is Conditioned Defensive Burying? |
|
Definition
A type of Semi-natural Learning.
Rats learn to avoid and bury and electric probe that shocks them. Used as a test of anxiety as well. |
|
|
Term
| How did Conditioned Taste Avoidance Challenge existing assumptions about conditioning? |
|
Definition
–Single Trial - no need for repeated training
–No need for temporal contiguity (delayed sickness)
–Violation of principle of equipotentiality (according to principle: you can condition anything to anything) |
|
|
Term
| What is Spontaneous Object Recognition? |
|
Definition
Rats explore an object, and then are given a choice to investigate a novel object or the old object.
Rats will prefer to investigate a novel object.
With different delays, you can test memory of the familiar object. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
use and disuse leads to change
-- movement toward perfection
-- changes in form through conscious will
-- environmental effects on organ development
-- inheritance of acquired characteristics |
|
|
Term
| What were Darwin's observations and deductions? |
|
Definition
Observation 1: Organisms have an enormous
capacity to overproduce.
Observation 2: Populations (with a few exceptions)
remain remarkably stable.
Deduction 1: There is a struggle for survival.
Observation 3: Individuals differ in their
characteristics, and many of these differences are
heritable.
Deduction 2: Those individuals who possess
adaptive characteristics will reproduce more
successfully than those who don’t and will pass on
these characteristics to their offspring.
This last process is what Darwin meant by
‘Natural Selection’
Evolution: the accumulation of the changes in
the population due to natural selectionDeduction 2: Those individuals who possess
adaptive characteristics will reproduce more
successfully than those who don’t and will pass on
these characteristics to their offspring. |
|
|
Term
| What is divergent evolution? |
|
Definition
homologous structures
(e.g. arm and bird wing) |
|
|
Term
| what is convergent evolution? |
|
Definition
analogous structures
(e.g. bird and insect wings) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| evolutionary byproducts: e.g. belly button |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
not everything had originally evolved for the function it serves today
e.g. feathers evolved as thermal insulators |
|
|
Term
| what is "noise" (in evolution)? |
|
Definition
many things with the same purpose are all maintained since they serve the same function equally well
e.g. different molecules with identical function |
|
|
Term
| does a large brain mean more intelligence? |
|
Definition
-there is no correlation between brain size and intelligence
-relative size of brain stem to cerebrum is the key
-brain stem: key vital functions
-cerebrum: involved in higher-order thinking |
|
|
Term
| Is social behaviour adaptive? Why or why not? |
|
Definition
| -it is adaptive to live socially because more can detect danger, defend resources and gather resources, share parent care, gain warmth |
|
|
Term
| What is Speciation? (and what can cause it?) |
|
Definition
the formation of a new species
- geographic barriers: individuals separated cannot mate
- behavioural barriers (courtship displays) |
|
|
Term
| Is Social Dominance adaptive? Why? |
|
Definition
| Yes. dominant individuals will have more access to resources |
|
|
Term
| are Courtship Display adaptive? |
|
Definition
happens when one gender has more choices
males typically compete to prove to females that they are worth mating with
– may even cause speciation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a group of organisms that is
reproductively isolated from other organisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| members of the same species |
|
|
Term
| Can behaviours that put an individual’s life at risk evolve? |
|
Definition
Yes, Example:
Altruism: looking after children is costly but it helps the offspring survive
Heroism: birds will act as if they have a broken wing to distract predators from a nest |
|
|
Term
| does all behavior directly increase individual fitness? |
|
Definition
no
example: Alarm calls in ground squirrels attract attention to the calling squirrel but helps others, it exists because of kin selection |
|
|
Term
| KIN SELECTION: what is it? |
|
Definition
| genes could become more common in subsequent generations by increasing the survival and/or the reproductive capacity of relatives who share the same genes -- one’s kin. |
|
|
Term
| what is Inclusive fitness? |
|
Definition
| the survival of your genes + the genes of your close relatives |
|
|
Term
What is needed for altruistic behaviour to occur
among unrelated individuals? |
|
Definition
Yes, in social situations where RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM is in place
example: Male baboon alliances where males Alternate in engaging an alpha male in a fight while the other copulates with the alpha male’s female. |
|
|
Term
Reciprocal altruism will emerge more often in
species where there is: |
|
Definition
• Individual recognition
• Long-lived individuals
• Stable communities
• Well-developed memory |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| different versions of a gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Behavior is part of phenotype and is
mediated in part by genotype |
|
|
Term
| What is the knockout mice example? |
|
Definition
The maintenance and reproduction of lines of gene
knockout mice where the non-functional gene is
necessary for reproduction
was maintained by breeding two heterozygous mice, 1/4 of the offspring were knock-out (infertile |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| segments of DNA on Chromosomes (packed-up DNA) |
|
|
Term
| how many chromosomes do humans have? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how is meiosis different from regular mitosis? |
|
Definition
| during meiosis, the chromosomes divide more than they duplicate resulting in 1 egg 4 sperm, and only 23 pairs chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency of genes that are located proximal to each other on a chromosome to be inherited together during meiosis |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure of DNA? |
|
Definition
Double Stranded helix
Each strand:
A sequence of Nucleotide Bases
Connected by
phosphate
deoxyribose |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 pairs of the 4 DNA bases? |
|
Definition
Adenine & Thymine
Guanine & Cytosine |
|
|
Term
| what is the difference between Structural Genes and Operator Genes |
|
Definition
Structural Genes- code for proteins
Operator Genes- switches that control structural genes |
|
|
Term
| The control of Gene expression determines _____ and is influenced by _____. |
|
Definition
cell type / function / regulation
experience/environment |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 steps of protein synthesis |
|
Definition
Transcription: DNA is copied to become RNA
Translation: RNA codes for a Protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Splicing: changes to RNA after transcription (introns are removed) |
|
|
Term
| What is Alternative Splicing? |
|
Definition
Alternative Splicing: exons from RNA are rearranged in mRNAs that can code for different proteins/peptides.
One gene can create many products |
|
|
Term
| What are Micro and other regulatory RNAs? |
|
Definition
They bind to mRNAs with complementary sequences and affect their translation to proteins
Mostly inhibitory effects (gene silencing)
Approx 60% of genes can be regulated by miRNAs |
|
|
Term
| What are Transcription Factors? |
|
Definition
A protein that either alone or after activation by another molecule (a ligand) up- or down- regulates the transcription of specific genes
1. By the gene: a response element (specific sequence).
2. On the transcription factor: a DNA-binding domain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecules that either activate or inhibit the activity of transcription factors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A change in phenotype that is heritable but does not
involve DNA mutation |
|
|
Term
| Explain this example: Epigenetic Effects of Parental Care |
|
Definition
the Quality of parental care, will effect the offspring's Stress responses, which will effect parental care by offspring
Over multiple generations (nongenomic transmission) |
|
|
Term
| What is the agouti gene example |
|
Definition
Mutation in agouti gene causes golden color and obesity
If you give Vitamin B to pregnant mice in high levels, the baby mice will be brown and lean, because vitamin D promotes methylation, and the bad genes get silenced |
|
|
Term
| How do Histone Modifications Change Access to DNA |
|
Definition
| when histones tails become stimulated, they open it up for transcription |
|
|
Term
| are methylations heritable? |
|
Definition
sometimes.
when fertilization occurs, methylations typically reset |
|
|
Term
| What need to happen for a gene to be switch ON? |
|
Definition
1. histones need to be stimulated
2. the cytosines need to be not methylated
If these two do not happen, then the DNA is turned OFF |
|
|
Term
| Mitochondrial Dysfunctions typically affect ____ and ____, and they typically ____ over a lifetime. |
|
Definition
metabolism
muscle tone
worsen over a lifetime |
|
|
Term
| How is mitochondrial DNA transmitted? |
|
Definition
| through the maternal line (only the nucleus of the sperm enters the egg, not the mitochondria) |
|
|
Term
What is the difference between Behavioural Phylogeny and
Behavioural Ontogeny |
|
Definition
Behavioural Phylogeny: development of the Species through Evolution
Behavioural Ontogeny: development within the Individual over the Lifespan |
|
|
Term
| what is Global gene expression |
|
Definition
- a type of Deliberate Genetic Manipulation
-gene knockout or knockin in the whole body
-allow is to understand a specific behavior (we don't know what about development is important) |
|
|
Term
| what is Spatially limited gene expression |
|
Definition
- a type of Deliberate Genetic Manipulation
-gene knockout or knockin only in a specific area |
|
|
Term
| what is Temporally limited gene expression |
|
Definition
- a type of Deliberate Genetic Manipulation
-gene is silenced at a specific time for a specific length of time
-can be done globally or spatially |
|
|
Term
| Does selective breeding for maze bright mice mean that you have bread for intelligence? |
|
Definition
no, these mice were not smarter in other tests
could be due to another factor e.g. stress levels, memory
it was found that the rats had multiple trait differences, The maze bright rats were not smarter,
they were less emotional (stress, anxiety, etc) |
|
|
Term
What was the Cooper and Zubek (1958)
“maze dullness”: effects of experience study? |
|
Definition
effects of selective breeding can be undone when rearing environment is changed
Maze-bright reared in enriched environment
Maze-dull reared in enriched environment
had similar performance |
|
|
Term
| What is the (Betta splendens) Fighting fish example? |
|
Definition
| They were Selected for aggression, but life experience can change this. Fish who have been defeated before, are likely to lose again, and eventually will stop being aggressive. |
|
|
Term
| What is the Behavioral Development – Bird Songs example? |
|
Definition
-male birds sing to deter other males and attract females
-they form a pair, nest, raise chicks to fledgelings
-new males learn to sing, by
1) sensory phase: hatchlings listen and memorize adult's song
2) sensorimotor phase: practice and perfect
-fledgelings will learn better if it is their own species song
-birds must retain the memory of the song for part of the year
-finches are age-limited learners, they must learn a song during a certain time
-canaries are open-ended learners |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
syrinx: part of brain for song learning (in birds)
Lateralized: left side more than right side
Sexually dimorphic: Bigger in males than females
Seasonal Plasticity: Brain grows in Spring!!! |
|
|
Term
| What is the Seasonal Brain Plasticity: black-capped Chickadees example? |
|
Definition
their hippocampus shrinks and grows with the seasons in relation to when it is used.
Store Food in Autumn and Recover Stored Food In Winter |
|
|
Term
| What is the Nest building in love birds – Dilger, 1960-1962 example? |
|
Definition
Masked lovebirds Bark and sticks carried to nest in
rump feather
Peachface lovebirds Material carried to nest in beak
Hybrids of these two: pick up material, turn as if to put it in rump feather, but then put it in their wing feathers and it falls, but with time they learn to carry it in their beack |
|
|
Term
| CELL MEMBRANE is made of: ____? |
|
Definition
Phospholipids
polar head (glycerol – phosphate) hydrophilic: Water-loving
two nonpolar fatty acid tails hydrophobic: Water-fearing
Nonpolar areas form a hydrophobic region between
the hydrophilic heads |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Glycolipids
Sugar groups into the extracellular space.
Protective, insulators
Receptor binding
Recognition of Self |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between Transmembrane or integral proteins and Peripheral membrane proteins |
|
Definition
Transmembrane: interact functionally with the cell they are Signal proteins and Channel proteins
Peripheral membrane proteins: They facilitate chemical
reactions (usually enzymes) |
|
|
Term
| Lipids of membrane form a barrier to _____ molecules |
|
Definition
| hydrophilic (water soluble) |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between active transport, passive transport, and diffusion |
|
Definition
Active Transport: requires energy consumption
(mitochondria)
Passive Processes: no energy consumption
DIFFUSION: Movement of substance (liquid or gas) along a
concentration gradient |
|
|
Term
how would steroid hormones (estrogens, progesterone,
testosterone) be transported into the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
If particles have the Same charge, particles_____ each other,
If particles have Opposite charges, particles______ each other |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How would Na+, Cl-, Ca2+ enter the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which ions are More concentrated OUTSIDE the cell? |
|
Definition
Sodium: Na+
Chloride: Cl- |
|
|
Term
| which ions are More concentrated INSIDE the cell? |
|
Definition
Potassium: K+
Protein ions - |
|
|
Term
| Is the inside or the outside of the cell more negative? |
|
Definition
| Overall: INSIDE more negative than OUTSIDE |
|
|
Term
| what is Membrane potential? |
|
Definition
difference in electrical charge between the inside
and the outside of a cell |
|
|
Term
| what is Neuronal Resting Potential? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
Is Cell membrane equally permeable to all ions?
-sodium
-potassium
-chloride
-electrically charged proteins |
|
Definition
no!
Not very permeable to sodium (Na+) ions
Relatively permeable to potassium (K+) ions
Very permeable to chloride (Cl-) ions
Impermeable to the electrically charged proteins (-) |
|
|
Term
| ions stay where they are due to _____, some are wont to stay where the are due to this. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP? |
|
Definition
It is an active (requires energy-uses ATP) co-transport mechanism
maintains resting potential
3 Na+ ions OUT
2 K+ ions IN |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 layers of the meninges |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the main functions of the Cerebellum? |
|
Definition
Motor Control/Coordination
Equilibrium - Balance
Some Cognitive Functions Main functions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Inferior colliculi: auditory
Superior colliculi: visual |
|
|
Term
| what does the corpus callosum do? |
|
Definition
corpus callosum: keeps the two hemispheres together
made of gray matter, has a large surface area due to many convolutions |
|
|
