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Assessments in Counseling
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Graduate
10/07/2010

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Term
Nominal scale
Definition
used to describe qualitative variables that can be categorized based on one or more distinguishing characteristic. variables considered discrete, mutually exclusive and exhaustive category. ie "single, married, widowed, divorced, separated"
Term
Ordinal Scale
Definition
Classification of discrete variables; ranking "1st, 2nd, 3rd". intervals can be unequal. numbers used for rankings do not reflect anything quantitative about the variable
Term
Interval Scale
Definition
ordered categories, categories form a series of equal intervals across the whole range of the scale. encompass properties of both magnitude and equal intervals. no absolute zero point--no absence of variable being measured, such as temperature or intelligence. meaning of interval changes along scale even when math stays same.
Term
Ratio scale
Definition
in additiona to all qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval scales, ratio scale consists of true or absolute zero point; permits all types of meaningful math calculations. ie: age, height, weight, scores on 100-point test
Term
Frequency Distribution
Definition
takes disorganized set of scores and places them in order in table or graph, showing how many ppl obtained each of the scores
Term
Class interval
Definition
group or series of scores within certain range to make data more manageable
Term
symmetrical distribution
Definition
bell-shaped or normal curve
Term
Positively skewed
Definition
majority of scores fell near the lower end of scale; "tail" extending out to the right
Term
Negatively Skewed
Definition
majority of scores fell near the higher end of the scale; tail extending to the left
Term
Kurtosis
Definition
reflects the peakedness or flatness of a distrubtion. zero value = mesokurtic, similar in height to normal distribution. Positive values: leptokurtic, more peaked. Negative values: platykurtic: flatter than normal (scores spread out rather evenly from lowest to highest)
Term
Mean
Definition
arithmetic average
Term
Median
Definition
middle score. not sensitive to outliers
Term
mode
Definition
score that appears most frequently; commonly used with variables that are measured at the nominal level, also quick and easy measurement for other scale types
Term
range
Definition
quick measure of spread of scores; subtract lowest score from the highest score
Term
variance
Definition
average amount of variability in a group of scores
Term
standard deviation
Definition
most frequently used measure of variability. average distance of test scores from the mean. important stat for interpreting the relative position of an individual within a distribution of test scores
Term
Normal curve
Definition
bilaterally symmetrical; mean, median, and mode equal to one another; tails are asymptotic; 100% of scores fall between -3 and +3 SD from mean: 68% between -1 and +1 SD; 95% between -2 and +2 SD; 99.5% between -3 and +3 SD
Term
Correlation coefficient
Definition
Direction: positive or negative. Strength: magnitude of relationship. Between -1.00 and +1.00.
Term
Criterion-referenced scores
Definition
emphasized the use of some criterion or standard of performance to interpret an examinee's test results; most tests and quizzes writeen by school teachers, determined in absolute terms, such as percentages, scale scores, and performance categories
Term
Norm-referenced scores
Definition
compare an individual's test scores to the test scores of a group of people
Term
Norm group
Definition
the large group of individuals who took the test and on whom the test was standardized
Term
Percentile ranks
Definition
represents the percentage of a distribution of scores that falls (equal to or) below a particular test score
Term
Quartiles
Definition
similar to percentile by divide data set into four equal parts. First quartile = 25th percentile; second quartile = 50th percetile; third quartile = 75th percentile.
Term
Interquartile range
Definition
distance between the first quartile and the third quartile. contains 50% of all values in the distribution
Term
Standard scores
Definition
linear transformations of raw scores. ie: z scores, T scores, diation IQs, stanines, sten scores, and other standard score scales
Term
z scores
Definition
conveys the value of a score in terms of how many standard deviations it is above or below the mean of the distribution. mean for distribution of z scores i 0, SD is 1.0. range of z scores is approx. from -3.0 to +3.0
Term
T scores
Definition
fixed mean of 50. fixed SD of 10. T scores will always be positive whole numbers. very popular in psychology, often used to report personality test results
Term
Deviation IQs
Definition
counteracted problems with original conceptualization of IQ as mental age/chronological age. have a mean of 100 and a SD of 15 (usually)
Term
CEEB Scores
Definition
standard scores developed by the College Entrance Examination Board (ETS). used for SAT and GRE. range from 200 to 800, have a mean of 500, SD of 100
Term
Stanine
Definition
converts raw scores into values 1 to 9. mean of 5 and SD of 2. constant relationship to percentiles--represent a sepcific range of percentile scores in the normal curve (percentile always falls within the same stanine)
Term
Sten
Definition
similar to stanine, but stens range from 1 to 10. mean of 5.5, SD of 2.
Term
Normal Curve Equivalent
Definition
(NCE) normalized standard score, range 1 to 99, mean 50, standard deviation of 21.06
Term
Grade equivalent
Definition
norm-referenced, developmental scores that represent the average score for children at various grade levels. divided into 10 units. intended to represent a student's test performance in terms of the grade level at which the "average" student's performance matches that of the examinee
Term
Age equivalent
Definition
represent an examinee's test performance in terms of the age at which the "average" individual's performance matches that of the examinee
Term
Reliability
Definition
the degree to which test scores are dependable, consistent, and stable across items of a test, different forms of the test, or across repeat administrations. Considerations: Reliability refers to the results obtained with an assessment instrument, not the instrument itself. An estimate of reliability always refers to a specific type of reliability. Scores on assessment instruments are rarely totally consistent or error free. All instruments are subject to some degree of error and fluctuation.
Term
Measurement Error
Definition
an fluctuation in scores that results from factors related to the measurement process that are irrelevant to what is being measured
Term
time-sampling error
Definition
associated with the fluctuation in test scores obtained from repeated testing of the same individual. carryover effect--when the first testing session influences the scores on the second session. practice effect: during second administration, test-takers' scores may increase because they have sharpened skills by having taken the test the first time. if too long between administrations, confoundation with learning, maturation, or other intervening experiences
Term
Content-sampling error
Definition
the error that results from selecting test itmes that inadequately cover the content area that the test is supposed to evaluate
Term
Test-Retest Method
Definition
same test given twice with time interval between testing. coefficient: stability. sources of error: time sampling
Term
Alternate Forms, Simultaneous Administration
Definition
Equivalent tests given at the same time. Coefficient: equivalnce. Sources of error: content sampling
Term
Alternate forms, delayed administration
Definition
Equivalent tests given with a time interval between testings. Coefficient: stability and equivalence. Sources of error: time sampling and content sampling
Term
Split-Half
Definition
One test is divided into two comparable halves, and both halves are given during one testing session. Coefficient: equivalence and internal consistency. Sources of erro: content sampling
Term
KR Formulas and Coefficient Alph
Definition
One test given at one time (items compared to other itmes or to the whole test) Coefficient: Internal consistency. Sources of error: content sampling
Term
Interrater
Definition
One test given and two individuals independently score the test. Coefficient: interrater agreement. Sources of error: interrater differences
Term
Internal consistency reliability
Definition
concerned with the interrelatedness of items within an instrument. evaluated the extent to which the items on a test measure the same ability or trait
Term
Standard error of measurement
Definition
(SEM)simple measure of an individual's test score fluctuations (due to error) if he or she took the same test repeatedly. estimation of the acuracy of an individual's observed scores as related to the true score had the individual been tested infinite times
Term
Confidence intervals
Definition
indicate the upper limit and lower limit within which a person's true score will fall. CI 68% = X + or - 1.00 SEM. CI 95%, CI 99.5
Term
Assessment Process
Definition
1. Identify the problem. 2. Select assessment instrument(s). 3. Score and interpret results. 4. Report and recommendations.
Term
Not until ___ did assessment become commonplace in the U.S.
Definition
the late 1950's
Term
Types of interviews
Definition
structured, unstructured
Term
Types of tests
Definition
standardized vs nonstandardized. individual vs. group. maximum-performance vs. typical performance. verbal vs. nonverbal. objective vs. subjective
Term
types of observations
Definition
formal vs. informal. direct vs. indirect. natural vs. contried. self-monitoring vs. collateral sources/records
Term
Important points in ethical standards
Definition
competence: selection, administration, scoring, and interpretation. informed conset. only release data to qualified professional. Confidentiality is an ethical guideline, not a legal right. Sensitivity to diagnoses. Multicultural issues.
Term
Level A Qualification for assessments
Definition
bachelor's degree and has read the test manual and is familiar with the purpose of testing (ie. teachers)
Term
level b qualification
Definition
master's degree and advanced coursework and training in testing/certification (school counselors)
Term
level c qualification
Definition
usually a doctoral degree with advanced training and supervised experience in administering particular tests (LDTC/psychologists)
Term
ADA (1990)
Definition
provide testing accommodations for those who are disabled
Term
FERPA (1974)
Definition
school records should be kept private including assessment records
Term
IDEA (1975, 2004)
Definition
students must be tested at the school's expense
Term
HIPPA (1996)
Definition
privacy of clients' healthcare records
Term
NCLB (2001)
Definition
establishes standards emasured through standardized testing
Term
Carl Perkins Act (2006)
Definition
equal access to vocational assessment
Term
raw scores
Definition
provide little meaning to test performance. need to be manipulated to understand test performance.
Term
Percentile
Definition
the percentage of people falling at or below an obtained score; the percentage of people you scored the same of better than on a test
Term
z scores
Definition
scores indicating how many standard deviation units the raw score is above or below the mean
Term
T scores
Definition
a score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. always positive. few decimals
Term
stanine
Definition
a score with a mean of 5 and a SD of 2. represents a range of z scores and percentiles (whole number)
Term
normal curve equivalent scores
Definition
scores that range in equal units along the normal cure. range from 1 to 99. mean = 50. SD: 21.06
Term
random error
Definition
unpredictable factors that affect measurement. not consistent across the sample. called "noise"
Term
systematic error
Definition
factors that affect everyone the same. the error is consistent across sample. called "bias"
Term
reliability coefficient
Definition
proportion of variability explained by true scores. correlation; ranges from 0 to 1. The higher the reliability coefficient: the closer observed scores are to true scores, the lower the percetage of error in scores, the more test scores are correlated with one another
Term
test-retest reliability
Definition
correlate SCORES from 2 administration of the same test. good for a construct that is stable over time. the problem: as time increases, correlations decrease
Term
alternate/parallel/equivalent forms reliability
Definition
correlate SCORES of similar tests, doesn't have the problem with time (like test-retest), the problem: making "equivalent" tests
Term
internal consistency
Definition
the correlation among all the ITEMS in the test. only one form and only one administration: split-half/odd-even reliability; cronbach's coefficient alpha, kuder-richardson formula
Term
split-half/odd-even reliability
Definition
equal halves of a signle test are correlated. The problem: splitting the test makes it shorter. Reliability increases as test length increases.
Term
Spearman-Brown prophecy formula
Definition
determines the reliability as if half the test had the same number of questions as the full test
Term
Cronbach's coefficent Alpha
Definition
The mean of all split half combinations of the test. Used for tests with rating scale type items.
Term
Kuder-Richardson formal (KR-20/KR-21)
Definition
The mean of all split half combinations of the test. Used for tests with right/wrong items.
Term
Standard Error of Measurement
Definition
An estimation of the range in which a true score exists. Reliability of a single test score.
Term
Confidence intervals
Definition
a range of scores that we are "confident" that a person's true score falls within
Term
Confidence intervals
Definition
CI 1: 68%, 1 SEM + -, CI 2: 95%, 2 SEM + -, CI 3: 99% 3 SEM + -
Term
Validity
Definition
Does the test measure what it claims to measure? Are the scores meaningful in terms fo what the test claims to measure? Can we make decisions about a person based upon the test scores? Validity is based upon the test PURPOSE, not on the test itself. (Look at the situation the test was used in.)
Term
Relationship between validity and reliability
Definition
A test can be RELIABLE but not valid (Scores can be consisten but not measure the construct appropriately.) A test can NEVER be VALID but NOT RELIABLE. A test that is not reliable cannot be measuring the construct appropriately. Reliability is necessary for validity. Validity is NOT necessary for reliability.
Term
Content Validity
Definition
The adequacy of items in a test. Do the items measure the construct appropriately? How test takers respond to questions (response process) might reveal inadequacies in test itmes.
Term
Face validity
Definition
The test superficially appears to measure the construct.
Term
Criterion-Related Validity
Definition
The adequacy of a test score to infer a person's standing on a construct. Examines the relationship between the test score and external variables (or criterion).
Term
Validity Coefficient
Definition
the reliationship between test scores and the criterion.
Term
Concurrent validity
Definition
Criterion-related validity, relationship between a test and a criterion at the same time.
Term
Predictive validity
Definition
How well test scores predict future performance (criterion-related validity)
Term
Construct Validity
Definition
The extent to which a test is actually measuring a construct.
Term
Convergent validity
Definition
(construct validity) a strong positive correlation exists between tests that measure the same construct. Compare a new test with a well-established test.
Term
Discriminant validity
Definition
A low correlation exists between tests that measure different constructs. Compare two unrelated tests.
Term
Group differentiation
Definition
(construct validity) scores correctly differentiat groups of people
Term
Age differentiation
Definition
(construct validity) scores increase or decrease with age
Term
Factor analyses
Definition
(Construct validity) determines if a test is unidimensional or has several dimensions (subscales)
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