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AS-level Psychology
Research Methods Key Terms
100
Psychology
11th Grade
12/08/2010

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Term
Attrition
Definition

The loss of participants over time which could lead to a biased sample, or a sample which is too small

Term

Behaviour Checklist

Definition

A list of the behaviours to be recorded during an observational study.

Term
Behavioural Categories
Definition
Dividing a target behaviour (such as attachment or sociability) into a subset of behaviours. This can be done using a behaviour checklist or a coding system.
Term
Case Study
Definition
A research method that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event. Case studies provide a rich record of human experience but are hard to generalise from.
Term
Closed Questions
Definition
Questions that have a range of answers from which respondents select one; produces quantitative data. Answers are easier to analyse than those for open questions.
Term
Coding System
Definition

A systematic method for recording observations in which individual behaviours are given a code for ease of recording.

Term
Cohort Effects
Definition

One group of participants (cohort) may have unique characteristics because of time-specific experiences during their development such as being a child during the Second World War. This can affect both cross-sectional studies (because one group is not comparable with another) or in longitudinal studies (because the group studied is not typical).

Term
Confederate
Definition

An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator/experimenter. May act as the independent variable.

Term
Confidentiality
Definition
A participant’s right to have personal information protected
Term
Content Analysis
Definition

A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, books, diaries or TV programmes. Behaviour is categorised (qualitative analysis) and may be counted (quantitative analysis).

Term
Control Condition
Definition
A repeated measures experiment, the condition that provides a baseline measure of behaviour without the experimental treatment (IV), so that the effect of the experimental treatment may be assessed.
Term
Control Group
Definition

In an independent groups experiment, a group of participants who receive no treatment. Their behaviour acts as a baseline against which the effect of the IV may be measured.

Term
Controlled Observation
Definition
A form investigation in which behaviour is observed, but under controlled conditions, in contrast to a naturalistic observation.
Term
External Validity
Definition
The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other settings (ecological validity), other groups of people (population validity) and overtime (historical validity).
Term
Field Experiment
Definition

A controlled experiment conducted outside a laboratory. The IV is manipulated by the experimenter, therefore causal relationships can be demonstrated. Particpants are not aware of being studied.

 

Term
Hawthorne Effect
Definition
The tendancy for participants to alter the behaviour as a result of knowing they are being observed.
Term
Imposed Etic
Definition
A technique or theory is developed in one culture and used to study behaviour of people in a different culture which has different norms, values etc.
Term
Independent Groups
Definition
Participants are allocated to two or more groups representing different experimental conditions using random techniques.
Term
Informed Consent
Definition
Participants must be given information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it to make an informed decision on whether to participate.
Term
Inter-Interviewer Reliability
Definition
The extent to which two interviewers produce the same outcome from an interview.
Term
Internal Validity
Definition
Whether the study has tested what it set out to test, and the degree to which the observed effect was due to the experimental manipulation of the IV, rather than other factors such as extraneous variables.
Term
Inter-observer Reliability
Definition

   The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour. This is measured by correlating the observations of two or more observers. A general rule is that if (total number of agreements) / (total number of observations) > 0.80, the data have high inter-observer reliability.

Term
Interview
Definition

  A research method or technique that involves a face-to-face, ‘real-time’ interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data.

Term
Interviewer Bias
Definition

    The effect of an interviewer’s expectations, communicated unconsciously, on a respondent’s behaviour.

Term
Investigator Effect
Definition

Anything that the investigator/experimenter does which has an effect on a participant’s performance in a study other than what was intended. This includes direct effects (as a consequence of the investigator/experimenter interacting with the participant) and indirect effects (as a consequence of the investigator designing the study).

Term
Investigator/experimenter Bias
Definition

 The effect that an investigator/experimenter’s expectations has on the participants and thus on the results of a research study.

Term
Laboratory Experiment
Definition

  An experiment carried out in a controlled setting.  Experiments tend to have high internal validity and low external validity though this isn’t always true. Participants know they are being studied.

Term
Longitudinal Study
Definition

    Observation of the same items over a long period of time. Such studies usually aim to compare the same individuals at different ages, in which case the IV is age. A longitudinal study might also observe a school or other institution over a long period of time.

Term
Matched Pairs
Definition
Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is placed in the experimental group and the other member in the control group.
Term
Meta-analysis
Definition

 A researcher looks at the findings from a number of different studies in order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis.

Term
Mundane realism
Definition

Refers  to how a study mirrors the real word. The simulated task environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the environment will occur in the real world.

Term
Natural experiment
Definition
A research method in which the experimenter cannot manipulate the independent variable directly, but where it varies naturally and the effect can be observed on a dependent variable. Strictly speaking, an experiment involves the deliberate manipulation of an IV by the experimenter, so causal conclusions cannot be drawn from a natural experiment. In addition, participants are not randomly allocated to conditions in a natural experiment, which may reduce validity.
Term
Naturalistic Observation
Definition

    A research method carried out in a naturalistic setting, in which the investigator does not interfere in any way but merely observes the behaviour(s) in question though this is likely to involve the use of structured observations.

Term
Non-directional Hypothesis
Definition

    Predicts simply that there will be a difference between two conditions or two groups of participants, without stating the direction of the difference (experiment), or that two variables are related without telling you the direction of the relationship (correlation).

Term
Observer Bias
Definition

     In observational studies, there is the danger that observers might ‘see’ what they expect to see. This reduces the validity of the observations.

Term
Open Questions
Definition

Questions that invite the respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided. Tend to produce qualitative data.

Term
Participant Effects
Definition

 A general term used to acknowledge the fact that participants react to cues in an experimental situation and that this may affect the validity of any conclusions drawn from the investigation.

Term
Participant Variables
Definition

Characteristics of individual participants (such as age, intelligence, etc.) that might influence the outcome of a study.

Term
Pilot Study
Definition
A small-scale trial of a study run to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements.
Term
Privacy
Definition
A person’s right to control the flow of information about themselves. Contrast with confidentiality.
Term
Protection From Harm
Definition
During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self-esteem or embarrassment.
Term
Qualitative  Data
Definition

 Expresses the ‘quality’ of things – descriptions, words, meanings, pictures, texts and so on. Qualitative data cannot be counted or quantified but it can be turned into quantitative data by placing them in categories.

Term
Quantitative Data
Definition

   Data that represent how much or how long, or how many, etc. there are of something; i.e. a behaviour is measured in numbers or quantities.

Term
Questionnaire
Definition
Data is collected through the use of written questions.
Term
Random Allocation
Definition
Allocating participants to experimental groups using random techniques.
Term
Reliability
Definition

   A measure of consistency both within a set of scores or items (internal reliability) and also over time such that it is possible to obtain the same results on subsequent occasions when the measure is used (external reliability). The reliability of an experiment can be determined through replication.

Term
Repeated Measures
Definition
Each participant takes part in every condition under test.
Term
Right to Withdraw
Definition

  Participants should have the right to withdraw from participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way, and should also have the right to refuse permission for the researcher to use any data they produced.

Term
Social Desirability Bias
Definition

    A tendency for respondents to answer questions in such a way that presents them in a better light.

Term
Unstructured Interview
Definition

     The interview starts out with some general aims and possibly some questions, and lets the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions.

Term
Unstructured Observations
Definition

     An observer records all relevant behaviour but has no system. This technique may be chosen because the behaviour to be studied is largely unpredictable.

Term
Volunteer Sample
Definition

    A sample of participants produced by a sampling technique that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample.

Term
Scattergram
Definition
A graphical representation of the relationship (i.e. the correlation) between two sets of scores.
Term
Situational Variables
Definition

   Factors in the environment that could affect the dependent variable such as noise, time of day and also the behaviour of an investigator.

Term
Opportunity Sample
Definition

    A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study.

Term
Target Population
Definition

   The group of people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people from whom a sample is drawn. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made.

Term
Systematic Sample
Definition

     A method of obtaining a representative sample by selecting every 5th or 10tth person. This can be a random sample if the first person is selected using a random method; then you select every 5th or 10th person after this.

Term
Structured Interview
Definition
Any interview in which the questions are decided in advance.
Term
Single Blind
Definition

    A type of research design in which the participant is not aware of the research aims or of which condition of the experiment they are receiving.

Term
Order Effect
Definition
In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented, e.g. a practice effect or fatigue effect.
Term
Open Questions
Definition
Questions that invite the respondents to provide their own answers rather than select one of those provided. Tend to produce qualitative data.
Term
Mundane Realism
Definition

    Refers to how a study mirrors the real world. The simulated task environment is realistic to the degree to which experiences encountered in the environment will occur in the real world.

Term
Measures of Central Tendency
Definition

     A  statistic that describes patterns in the data, e.g. mean, median and mode. 

Term
Matched Pairs
Definition

      Participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is placed in the experimental group and the other member in the control group.

Term
Interview
Definition

    A research method or technique that involves a face-to-face, ‘real-time’ interaction with another individual and results in the collection of data.

Term
Zero Correlation
Definition
In a correlation co-variables are not linked at all.
Term
Correlation
Definition
Determining the extent of a relationship between two variables, known as co-variables
Term
Correlation Coefficient
Definition
A number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables are related.
Term
Counter-balancing
Definition
An experimental technique used to overcome order effects that ensures that each conditions is tested first or second in equal amounts.
Term
Covert Observation
Definition
Observing people without their knowledge, e.g. through a one-way mirror; knowing your are being observed is likely to change your behaviour.
Term
Cross-cultural Study
Definition
A kind of natural experiment in which the IV is different cultural practices, and the DV is a behaviour such as attachment. It enables us to study cultural differences.
Term
Deception
Definition
Where partcipants are not told the true aim of the study, e.g. what participation would involve, thus cannot give truly informed consent.
Term
Demand Characteristics
Definition
A cue that makes participants aware of what the researcher expects to find, or how partcipants are expected to behave. They change the outcome of the study because participants can change their behaviour accordingly.
Term
Dependent Variable
Definition
The variable that is measured in an experiment to see how it was affected by the independent variable.
Term
Directional Hypothesis
Definition
States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or groups of participants, e.g. group A will do better than group B.
Term
Double Blind
Definition
Neither the participant or the experimenter are aware of the research aims, and other important details, and thus have no expectations.
Term
Ethical Committee
Definition
A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins.
Term
Ethical Guidelines
Definition
A set of guidelines laid out by the BPS that establish principles of good practice and competence.
Term
Event Sampling
Definition
An observational technique in which account is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour (event) occurs.
Term
Experimental Condition
Definition
In a repeated measures design, the condition containing the independent variable.
Term
Experimental Design
Definition
A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment. There are three designs: repeated measures, independent groups and matched participants.
Term
Experimental Group
Definition
In an independent groups design, a group of participants who are exposed to the IV.
Term
Experimental Realism
Definition
The extent to which participants become involved in an experiment and become less influenced by cues about how to behave.
Term
Independent Variable
Definition
The variable in an experiment which is manipulated by the researcher to see how it affects the dependent variable.
Term
Intervening Variable
Definition
A variable that comes between two other variables that is used to explain the relationship between those two variables. For example, if a positive correlation is found between ice-cream sales and violence, this may be explianed by an intervening variable - heat.
Term
Measures of Dispersion
Definition
A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread-out a set of scores are, e.g. the range and standard deviation.
Term
Negative Correlation
Definition
In a correlation, as one co-variable goes up, the other goes down.
Term
Operationalisation
Definition
Defining a variable in a hypothesis that makes it clear how it is to be measured, e.g. alcohol consumption is defined as two units.
Term
Positive Correlation
Definition
In a correlation both co-variables increase together.
Term
Presumptive Consent
Definition
A method for dealing with a lack of informed consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part. If this group consent to the procedures, it is presumed that the real participants would agree. Milgram did this.
Term
Standardised Instructions and Procedures
Definition
Instructions and procedures are decided on beforehand to prevent experimenter effects and biases.
Term
Random Sample
Definition
A sample of participants produced by using a random technique, e.g. pulling names out of a hat. Each member of a target population has the same chance of being picked, which should make the sample representative.
Term
Role Play
Definition
A controlled observation in which participants are asked to imagine how they would behave in certain situations, and act out the part. This method has the advantage of permitting one to study behaviours that may be unethical.
Term
Standard Deviation
Definition
A measure of dispersion, and shows the amount of variation in a data set. The smaller the number, the more the scores cluster around the mean.
Term
Time Sampling
Definition
An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours ina given time frame, e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 30 seconds.
Term
Volunteer Bias
Definition
A form of sampling bias, because volunteer participants are usually more highly motivated than random participants.
Term
Range
Definition
A measure of dispersion, the difference between the highest and lowest score in a data set. It is easy to calculate, but does not tell us about the spread of the scores within the range.
Term
Mode
Definition
A measure of central tendency, the most frequently occurring score in a data set. This is used when dealing with non-numerical categories such as the most commonly watched soap-opera.
Term
Mean
Definition
A measure of central tendency, which shows the average score in a data set. It takes all scores into account, but is affected by extreme scores.
Term
Median
Definition
A measure of central tendency, the middle value in a set of scores when they are placed in rank order.It is not affected by extreme scores, but is not as accurate as the mean.
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