Term
| Popular Notions of Arguing |
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Definition
Interpersonal conflict, rather than group, institutional, or ideological disputes
Verbal hostility: “fighting”
Emotional escalation
Examples: “Those two are always arguing.”
Competition: always about winning |
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| Cultural Views of Argumentation |
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Definition
Feminist and Afrocentric views stress collectivism and inclusivity in argumentation
There is more than one way to perceive an argument situation and the controversy at hand
Argumentation should:
reflect diverse experiential standpoints and “give voice”
include everyone potentially affected by the argument-driven decisions proposed and reached |
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Relationship between persuasion and the definition of argumentation |
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Definition
Argumentation is also a narrower notion than persuasion; it is a “rational subset of persuasion”
While arguments are gauged by their persuasiveness, persuasion encompasses not only reason, rationality and proof, but also emotional appeals |
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Definitions of ethics and ethical standards for evaluating argumentation |
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Definition
Ethics: “the term we use to indicate the moral choices a person makes regarding his or her behavior
The ethics of argumentation therefore refers to:
1. questions of right or wrong
2. whether the arguer’s actions are socially appropriate |
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Term
What are the three perspectives on argument |
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Definition
| logical, dialetical, rhetorical |
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Term
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Definition
-offers a series of formal rules for distinguishing sound arguments from unsound ones
-An argument is seen as a commodity or product to be tested by applying rules
-Rules of formal logic convert ideas into mathematical symbols and questions of formal validity—what is absolutely true
-Treats argumentation as informal logic, because it cannot lead to absolute conclusions
Focuses on argument content but not context; proof and reasoning are paramount
Sees audience as rationalists with sound cause-effect reasoning. The audience is a neutral third-part judge of the better argument
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Term
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Definition
explores the structure of conversations in which people offer and analyze reasons
-focuses on principles and procedures used or best used in argumentation
emphasizes the creation of a plan for interaction in which all sides of an issue or opinion can be effectively raised and analyzed
-audience is not separate from arguer—all are active participants |
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Definition
focuses on how arguments are made and interpreted—what strategies are used
-content and context are considered
-stresses how an arguer creates advantageous definitions
-views audiences as decision makers faced with multiple choices for believing and acting |
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Term
Characteristics and examples of field of argumentation |
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Definition
•a social or professional context in which people argue to make decisions or build a body of knowledge
Field dependent elements: each field includes its own:
-jargon or code
-standards for rigor in proof, reasoning, and generalization
-subject matter
-advocates for change and opponents of that change
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Term
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•when one side is arbitrarily given the figurative ground (the advantage) over which an argument takes place—example: “innocent until proven guilty” in the court of law |
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Definition
•when one side holds the figurative ground based on observations of the natural order of a field of argumentation |
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Definition
a system of free enterprise is the best path to national prosperity; journalists are not bloggers or activists
-reflects the already-accepted accepted status quo of values, beliefs, and everyday cultural practices; what is informally seen as normal, common sense, and appropriate |
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Term
Definition and examples of burden of proof |
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Definition
•Burden of proof: Presumption favors no change and reveals what the advocate must prove: why trusted ideas should be abandoned
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Term
Definition of prima facie case |
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Definition
•The advocate immediately appears to fulfill the burden of proof, thus inviting change. The chance of being successfully disproven by opponents seems unlikely |
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Term
| example of prima facie case |
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Definition
In a legal charge for writing “bad” checks, evidence of a half dozen checks written on a non-existent bank account makes it a prima facie case.
However, there is a (slim) chance that the bank misprinted the account number on the checks, thus disrupting the prosecution's "open and shut" case. |
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Term
Definitions of topical agreement |
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Definition
•all sides agree to a proposition that captures the essence of the issue to be argued |
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Term
Definition of attitudinal versus structural inherency |
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Definition
-structural inherency: when the cause of a problem is found in institutionalized behaviors, rules, and laws
-attitudinal inherency: when a problem is caused by informal but accepted beliefs, opinions, values, and emotions |
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Definition
arguer wants audience to change a belief on the basis of a specified standard of morality |
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Definition
| urges change in belief by asserting that there is one most accurate way of viewing the evidence |
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Definition
calls for a change in behavior or creates a call to action |
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Term
| Functions of Propositions |
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Definition
-pinpoints the specific area of disagreement
-marks the boundaries of the debate
-places the burden of proof on the advocate
-gives presumption to the opponent
-specifies whether the problem is a belief, behavior, or both |
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| informal/culturally implied |
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Definition
we see the world a certain way because of certain word choices |
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Rules for defining terms within propositions |
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Definition
| inclusionary, exclusionary, adaptation, neutrality |
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Term
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Phrase definitions to include what appropriately falls within the scope of the term’s meaning. |
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Phrase definitions to exclude what does not fall appropriately within the term’s scope of meaning. |
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Phrase definitions to fit the field and audience’s range of understanding and experience |
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Definition
Phrase definitions with emotionally neutral language |
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Meaning of definition by example |
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Definition
providing concrete, representative instances
Proposition: “Despite wide media publicity given historically to hate crimes against marginalized communities in the U.S., this coverage has failed to expose underlying, systemic causes.”
One could offer examples such as how news coverage responded to the murders of Emmett Till and Matthew Sheppard. |
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Meaning of definition by operation |
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Definition
used for clarifying the meaning of a term by explaining it as the result of a series of steps
-like definition by function, explains how something works, but goes further by specifying a step-by-step process or set of parts that the advocate proposes for a term.
-returning the example of mass media regulation, an advocate may give a detailed account of a proposed policy for regulation |
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Meaning of definition by authority |
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Definition
Using a definition by a source deemed reputable within a field
Example: What is the authoritative or expert meaning of “biotechnology”?
The advocate could appeal to the meaning given in the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, or consult recent scholarly studies or textbooks. |
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Meaning of definition by synonym |
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Definition
using a denotatively or connotatively more familiar terms to explain the meaning of a term used in a proposition.
To elaborate on the meaning of “quality” and specify criteria for evaluating it in reality television programming, synonyms such as distinction, virtue, and tone can be used:
-A quality program achieves distinction when it is affirmed by parents and educations.
-A quality program demonstrates virtue through the actions of its characters |
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Term
Definition of primary Inference |
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Definition
| the conclusion you draw about what a proposition means, based on your definition of the key terms in it |
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Definition
| the portion of the value proposition that identifies broad criteria by which a value object is to be measured- the predicate of the sentence |
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| the portion of the value proposition that identifies an existing idea, person, action, agency, tradition, practice or custom to be evaluated- the subject of the sentence |
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| field invariant questions pertaining to propositions of fact, value, or policy that must be answered if belief or behavior is to change |
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| the specific need for knowledge identified by the wording of the proposition and discovered while analyzing the proposition that must be satisfied if belief or behavior is to change |
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| the process of putting together a set of arguments to be used to advocate or oppose the acceptance of a proposition by the audience |
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| Rules for Phrasing Propositions |
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Definition
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| the pattern of reasoning that justifies the inferential leap from grounds which are known to be true or probable to a claim |
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| argue how something is to be defined or categorized |
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Term
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| information of fact or opinion used to verify the claim- also termed evidence |
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Definition
| a statement that does not stand alone without further proof, a conclusion the audience will not accept without verification |
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| information that supports the warrant and helps legitimize the inferential leap from grounds to claim |
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| a statement that shows the degree of force an arguer believes a claim posesses |
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| a statement that limits a claim, showing the circumstances under which it might not be true or a response to an argument that refutes a claim to absurdity rather than raising serious points to refute it |
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| tests of factual evidence |
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Definition
Source Qualifications
Data Accuracy
Originality of Observation
Recency of Observation |
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Term
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Definition
In general, the more recent the information, the more reliable it will be |
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| Originality of Observation |
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Definition
Is the source’s information derived from firsthand or secondhand data collection? If secondhand, with what limitations? |
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Definition
Is the information presented in a straightforward manner or has it been manipulated to give it more or less importance? |
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In terms of necessary physical and mental ability, was the observer capable of making a factual observation? |
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Roles of popular sources in argumentation |
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Definition
Alert us of new events, issues, and developments in public affairs
Are often the very place (the mass mediated public sphere) where argumentation unfolds
Often reveal presumption and the existence of multiple perspectives on an issue or event
Show how salient—politically, culturally, emotionally, spiritually—an issue is to society at a given moment (they are primary historical evidence/raw material) |
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Term
secondary scholarly sources |
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Definition
| sources that reprocess, reorganize, or synthesize from primary sources. encylopedias, dictionaries, reference materials, textbooks, handbooks |
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Term
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Definition
| original or initial source where info is presented. something from the time period. raw materials. interview, newspaper, photographs, govt. data, research journal, periodicle, NOT TIME MAGAZINE, most library books, original studies, original movies, fictional |
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| brief, specific instances |
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| more detailed, draws the reader in, embodies principles of a narrative |
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