Term
| Three types of arguments (past,future,now) |
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Definition
Argument about the past is forensic
Argument about the future is deliberative
• Policy argument, this will happen
Argument about now is epideictic
• Ceremonial (praise/blame/eulogy) |
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| Because presumption lies with the status quo, the burden of proof lies with those indicting the status quo- with those seeking change. |
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Stock issues are generic (they always come up) elements of policy arguments
• Problem
• Cause
• Solution
• Advantages |
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• Formal
o Professional
o Has specific rules (court)
o Academic standards for argument
• Semi-formal
o Public Debate
o Stephen Tohlmin said this was legitimate and had many of the same components as formal
• Informal
o Private |
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• Data
o Evidence (audience is willing to accept)
• Warrant
o Reasoning (The glue that connects evidence to claim)
• Claim
o Thesis/Conclusion |
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• Premises (perceptual & Value) – general truths from which we proceed.
o An appeal for healthcare reform proceeds from the idea that people dying or going bankrupt is unacceptable.
Evidence – Factual (empirical & Opinion
• The facts show that.... |
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• Inductive
o Reasoning from specifics to general conclusions
• It was true for all of these people, it will be true for this person.
A disproportionate number of smokers get cancer. Mom, I’m concerned that you will get cancer.
Deductive reasoning
Reasoning from general to specific
All men are mortal
Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is mortal |
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• Regency
• Source Identification
• Source Ability
o How could s/he know that?
• Is the source in a position to be influenced?
• Is the evidence used in a manner consistent with the meaning and the intent of the source? |
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| Assuming that what is true of the separate parts is necessarily true of the whole. |
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| Assuming that what is true of the whole is true of the parts. |
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| Attempting to establish that an argument is true because the opposite cannot be proven. |
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| Calls for acceptance based on reverence for exalted position, tradition, sacred literature, the authority of old age, or established institutions. |
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| This is the way it has always been done |
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| build it up so you can blow it down. |
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| Exploiting the fact that a word has more than one meaning so as to lead to false conclusion. |
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| Exploits ambiguity in grammatical structure to lead to a false or questionable conclusion. |
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| Emotive Language (Ad Misericordiam) |
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| Attempts to persuade audiences by getting them to respond emotionally. |
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Circular logic
• Assumes as a premise or as evidence for an argument the very claim or point that is in question.
• Leaving pilots without a defense is wrong because it would leave them defenseless.
• Requiring basketball players to attend college is important. Without such a requirement, they would not attend college. |
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| The claim doesn’t follow from the claim. |
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| generalizing form too few instances |
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| Post hoc ergo propter hoc |
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“after this therefore because of this.”
• The economy has been in the dumps since 9/11. We need to pull out soon or we will soon lose even more jobs. |
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| • Will the problem go away if only one cause is addressed? |
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| We will slip down the hill to an inevitable end. |
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Indictment of the status quo – must be compelling (significant)
*Who must be compelled?
*So, what is enough?
Strive to be as concrete as possible
Strive to make problem warrant the degree of change proposed.
Quantitative description - #s
Qualitative description – “The problem is very sad!” |
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| Advocate must demonstrate that the problem is caused by an identifiable phenomenon that can be overcome. |
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| X must be overcome by change of policy. (Structural inherency). (Current system can’t overcome problem) |
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| Racism must be overcome by policy that changes attitudes - because the current system will not overcome problem. (i.e. Racism, sexism) |
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| Cost/Advantages (Solvency) |
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Definition
Demonstrate plan will solve problems identified.
Describe additional advantages |
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Term
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Definition
| Agency (who's going to do it), Mandates (what's going to get done), funding (how they're going to pay for it), enforcement (who's going to enforce the mandate) |
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