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| a enthusiastic student of history, particularly ancient artifacts and sites; not particularly scientific |
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| appointed director of excavations of antiquities of Rome in 1515; interest based on art, not archaeology, ex. Stanze di Raphael in Vatican inspired by Nero's Domus Aurea |
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| classicly inspired architect; Book of Antiquities published 1553 with descriptions and pictures: start of "cataloging" |
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| early excavations by wealth Spanish family of antiquarians (NOT archaeologists) were 'treasure hunts' for valuable artifacts, not historical data |
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| 1860 Pompeii excavations; found holes in lava rock from decomposed organic material (bodies), filled with plaster to show shape |
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| Prehistorieans (create framework for themselves based on artifacts and sites) or historical archaeologists (operate within a basic framework of societal dates) |
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| Upper class and wealthy merchant class prolonged vacation throughout Europe; often brought home artifacts to emphasize education and status |
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| Classical antiquity in America |
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| change: from religious import to intellectual, ex. library in the Jefferson Rotunda at UVA |
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| antiquarian interest in art; built many classical buildings based on those seen in France |
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| Classical archaeology in America |
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| mid to late 19th century universities started creating archaeology departments; developed scientific and anthropological archaeology |
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| based on tools typically used: stone (later divided into paleolithic, mesolithic, neolithic), bronze and iron; developed by Thomsen; widely accepted by 1800 |
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| wrote Germania, a history of Rome's (Ceasar's) conquests in Gaul and the cultures found there; noble savage myth; gathered no first-hand information |
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| philosophical and literary concept lauding the simplicity of the 'barbaric' lifestyle |
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| religious pilgrimages; collecting manuscripts and relics |
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| A place at the American University |
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| Renaissance study consequences |
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| transition from solely monastic scholarship to a wider range of 'pagan' philosophers: new interest in science and natural world, created a favorable atmosphere for archaeology |
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| 1400 scholar published commentaries on sites and libraries; had principle components of modern archaeologist: studying and recording physical remains through active field work |
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| Biological and Social evolution consequences |
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| rapid progress encouraged new idea of human progress; accept the implications of new work in geology, biology and artifacts |
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| Britannia published 1586; first general guide to antiquities of Britain |
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| Scientific Revolution consequences |
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| characterized by a desire to approach every subject from a sound basis of classification and comparison |
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| Monumenta Britannica late 1600s |
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| Archaeologia Britannica; combined linguistics and archaeology to suggest that British Isles were unified by similar languages and histories |
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| early 1700s, established connection between Druids and early Christianity; writings offer invaluable record of monuments that have since been damaged |
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| studying sites as part of a wider social landscape rather than on an individual basis |
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| Antiquarianism in the Americas |
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| Used mainly to justify European dominance by making natives seem inferior |
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| mound in Rome made of amphorae (80% Spanish, 15% African) fragments from Hadrianic (c. 117 to 250 AD) Rome; significant for understanding Roman and provincial economies and diets |
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| excavated by Spanish team; 35m high, triangular, multiple terraces from different ages: G terrace damaged because of bull fights |
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| pottery jars for importing olive oil, wine and fish sauce from provinces; spherical, stronger ones from Spain, taller, lighter ones from Africa; inscriptions can include exporting agency, weight, consular date, etc. |
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| before 12BC; monumental tomb |
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| 270AD surrounding ancient city limits; zigzag through city, connecting monuments, updated by Honorius in 400AD |
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| ancient port city of Rome, trade and business center; 14,000 inhabitants |
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| founded 7th century BC by Ancus Marcius; 4th cen. BC became military colony; 3rd cen. BC base of Roman navy; 100BC city walls built by Sulla |
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| 1st cen. BC wealthy trade center; 50AD Claudius' harbor fails; 90AD Domitian restores streets and gates; 110AD Trajan builds harbor |
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| harbor silts up; 4th to 5th cen becomes quiet residential town with urban villas; 1500 Pope Julius II builds fortress |
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| excavated Ostia in 18th cen.; funded by Pope, but got to keep half of his finds |
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| superimposed (deepest are oldest) layers containing containing distinctive fossils; places layers in sequence but does not give dates |
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| established precise method of recording where artifacts were found within the stratification of a site |
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| combined horizontal and vertical excavation with stratigraphic recording; box system grid of trenches |
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| deep trenches to sample deep strata without space for extensive horizontal excavation |
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| earch for archaeological sites and collect information about the location, distribution and organization of past human cultures across a large area; usually done because area is threatened or thought to be useful in answering an archaeological question |
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| small trench dug when general layout of site is already known to check critical details, eg. Roman military forts |
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| extension of surface fieldwork; numerous small holes are dug but not actually excavated |
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| small trenches to examine nature of site and stratification without damaging the archaeology |
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| commercial archaeology; examine large landscapes to determine existence of archaeological deposits before open-area excavation |
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| used for sites where plans could not be determined in advance; stratification must be carefully recorded before being removed |
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| reviewing evidence recorded by previous archaeologists: maps, plans, art, photos, etc. |
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| ability to conduct electricity through soil; differs for trenches, walls, moisture, etc. |
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| recognizes magnetism, eg. fire remains, metal objects |
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| developed for military use; laser attached to plane; can see through vegetation; much faster than walking surveys |
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| see crop marks or shadows from burried sites |
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| surface collection but can be done via car or plane |
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| 1. field survey and field walking; 2. gridding the site, deciding where to dig trenches; 3. removing topsoil; 4. remove layer by layer, recording strata; 5. section drawing; 6. photography; 7. telling the public; 8. backfilling |
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| research prompted by threats from development |
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| predates scientific; used calendars, typology and stratigraphy |
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| king lists of 76 pharaohs in Abydos, Egypt; tie in with Greek texts (eg. Heroditus) to confirm dates |
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| Americas equivalent to Egyptian calendar |
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| compare similar artifacts and date them together; dependent on stratification and cross-dating |
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| 'date after which'; layer cannot be earlier than x but can be later, and all above layers must be later |
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| 'date before which'; rarer, result of flooring or some other solid barrier; everything below must be from before x date |
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| 1960 Nobel Prize for radio-carbon dating; result of nuclear weapon development; allowed independent dating |
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| carbon 14 is absorbed by all living things until death; steady rate of decay with half life of 5568 years; margin of error increases with later dates |
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| carbon 14 levels in atmosphere is not constant discovered through dendochronology; older dating must be adjusted |
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| volcanic ash (tephra) deposits used for dating; must be connected with a specific eruption |
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| layers of sediment in lake beds |
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| study of dating by tree rings developed by Douglass; width of rings reflects environmental conditions; used to check radiocarbon dates |
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| impacts of radioactive dating |
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| showed that cultural change was not tied exclusively to diffusion/migration; showed that northern European development was not a result of contact with Mediterranean civilizations |
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| compare quantities of radioactive material with progeny elements |
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| radiation in pottery burned off in kiln so dating starts at zero from day of creation |
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| why study Roman peasants? |
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| made up 90% of population; reexamine views of Roman civilization |
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| assumptions about Roman peasants |
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| 6-12 million people: very dense population; subsistence lifestyle, basic agriculture and low protein diet; trade economy with no currency |
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| implications of Roman peasant project |
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| population smaller than thought; a variety in level of lifestyle; lived in villages and 'commuted' to work sites; intensive use of land: pastoralism and crop rotation; animal bones mean they ate plenty of meat; many coins, similar pottery to cities: integrated economy |
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