Term
| What is archaeology? Why is this an important question in archaeology? |
|
Definition
| the study of people, places, and the past through material remains |
|
|
Term
| What kinds of data do archaeologists look at? |
|
Definition
| archaeologists look at tools, food, and ways of eating, architecture, ritual, art, human remains, documents, iconography, sites, and landscapes |
|
|
Term
| How do we know what we know? |
|
Definition
| recurring theme of archaeology; general overarching question |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
fact = something that is known to be true
inference = the "glue" connecting facts (linking arguments, theories, and assumptions) |
|
|
Term
| Hawkes' Ladder of Inference |
|
Definition
less knowable --> religious institutions and spiritual life
Security of knowledge-->social organization
Security of knowledge-->subsistence economy
More knowable --> technologies of manufacture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the four subfields of anthropology? |
|
Definition
1. Socio-cultural: human culture; uses ethnography
2. Biological: humans as biological species
3. Linguistic: languages and ways of communicating
4. Archaeology: study of people through material remains |
|
|
Term
| How is archaeology similar to other subfields? |
|
Definition
Similar:
-long term projects: research question, grant writing, permissions / logistics, fieldwork, labwork, publicating / presenting
-commitment and passion |
|
|
Term
| How is archaeology different from other subfields? |
|
Definition
different:
-work is collaborative = archaeologists as project managers
-legal work = levels of permissions for digging in ground |
|
|
Term
| What are the steps involved in implementing archaeological research? |
|
Definition
1. Grant Writing
2. Form Research Team
3. Request Permissions
4. Logistics |
|
|
Term
| Early archaeology (5 main things): The Speculative Phase |
|
Definition
-called the speculative phase because curiousity, archaeology was not yet professionalized (treasure hunting)
-Renaissance, Age of Exploration (1492-1600)
1. Colonial chronicles
2. Exploration and "Natural History"
3. Hobbyists
4. Patronage
5. Collection |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the "first" archaeologist; excavations in his backyard |
|
|
Term
| John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood |
|
Definition
-Incidents of Travel in Central America
-Myans: 1st recorded detail; natural historians; drawings
-archaeology as a hobby |
|
|
Term
| What is the myth of the Moundbuilders and how was it debunked? |
|
Definition
| The mounds were built by a group of superior beings, a "lost race", who were eventually killed off. It was debunked because excavations showed that the burials in the mound contained the same bodies as Native Americans. |
|
|
Term
| What was Cyrus Thomas' contribution to the myth of the moundbuilders? |
|
Definition
| From the Bureau of American Ethnology. Did seven years of excavations on the mounds and discovered that the bodies buried in the mounds were Native American. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
searched for the location of the trojan war in EUrope, 1870s
first grand scale archaeological excavations
found Priam's Treasure; took it back to U.S.
early archaeology was his field |
|
|
Term
| Napoleon Bonaparte expedition |
|
Definition
| found the Rosetta stone (key to deciphering hieroglyphics) |
|
|
Term
| What was Jean-Francois Champollion's contribution? |
|
Definition
| Champollion translated it--3 different languages of carvings (Egyptian hieroglyphs, Demotic Egyptian, and Greek) |
|
|
Term
| Museum collectors & push for national museums-- Why were museums built and what were their collection methods? |
|
Definition
| Became a way of making your country great. Effort to create a unified history; links to a glorious past. "Race" for antiquities, so methods were not particularly careful. |
|
|
Term
| Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon |
|
Definition
Funded by Lord C, Carter found King Tut's tomb
early archaeology; patronage |
|
|
Term
| What were the primary reasons that archaeolgoy became a discipline? |
|
Definition
| -theory of evolution, contributions from sciences, museums starting to appear in Europe, unify theory of time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-said earth was created in 4004 BC
-implication for archaeology is that nothing can be older than that and all evolution is crammed into that tiny space of time |
|
|
Term
| James Hutton and Charles Lyell |
|
Definition
uniformitarianism: the same processes that are taking place in the world today took place in the past
-Lyell's Principles of Geology
-Implication for archaeology: Earth is OLD! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-recognized significance of strata in the rock
-first geological map of England |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-On the Origin of Species
-change through evolution, even humans, so great antiquity |
|
|
Term
| Straigraphy and Law of Superposition |
|
Definition
-Nicolas Steno = stratigraphy
-Law of Superposition = in a profile of soil, the stuff on the bottom was deposited first and is therefore older than top layers (fundamental to archaeology) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-three age system
-Stone, Bronze, and Iron Age
-an example of a classification system; ordering through time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Prehistoric Times
-Paleolithic = Old Stone Age
-Neolithic = New Stone Age |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Law of Association: things found at the same level were events that occured at the same time
-studies gravelots and realized that artifacts and burials are the same age |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-grand sequence of Europen artifacts
-refined seriation |
|
|
Term
| Professionalization of Archaeology |
|
Definition
-museums, journals, institutions
-anthropology departments
-field schools |
|
|
Term
| Which methods were developed in te late 1800s? |
|
Definition
| the first SYSTEMATIC excavations occured in the late 1800s |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-archaeologists need to record EVERYTHING they find
-Methods and Aims of Archaeology
-defined goals of discipline
-systematic recording and analysis
-preservation |
|
|
Term
Early 20th Century Archaeology: Culture History (1900-1960)
-3 goals |
|
Definition
-Asks the same question
1. Stratigraphy
2. Classification
3. Direct Historic Approach
-creating history of culture by looking at change in time in materials |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organizing objects on the basis of shared attributes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
artifact types specific to time and place
-with this information, you can begin writing culture histories because they are typical of a particular culture
-try to put together a large-scale synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
culture as a unified set of norms, materials
trace cultures through time -->region, spatial unit of things pertaining to a particular culture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-seriation (a technique used to order assemblages into relative age sequences)
-assumes that artifacts change and certain styles are popular at a given time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Direct Historic Approach
-Work back through time to get archaeological deposits
-working from known to unknown using ethnography |
|
|
Term
| By 1940s, tensions developed |
|
Definition
-Is archaeology history or science?
-Is chronology the only goal?
-What is the role of ethnographic information?
-Artifacts or people? |
|
|
Term
Culture History, Part II (1940-1960)
(3 themes) |
|
Definition
-how do we put people into this
-particular places influence decision making of life
1. Context and Function
2. Culture and Environment
3. New Analytical Techniques (environmental data, radiocarbon dating) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-holistic view of archaeology
-how cultures behaved and how things were used
-CONTEXT AND FUNCTION |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-culture and environment
-how cultures interact and adapt to environment (where to live, how to live, what to eat) |
|
|
Term
| why include paleoenvironmental data? |
|
Definition
-helps us understand environment
-processual archaeology |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| analysis of where people choose to live through time (location and size of sites) |
|
|
Term
| Processual / New Archaeology (1960-1980) |
|
Definition
-theory building
-archaeology should be: scientific, anthropological, focus on cultural process, optimism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Processual Archaeology
-archaeology is dependent upon inference to the past from things in the present
-study people in the present to make theories about what happened in the past |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-linking arguments between present and past
-Binford - statics you see on ground to actions that took place in the past |
|
|
Term
| ethnography vs. experimental archaeology |
|
Definition
-studying living people to see how archaeological record was formed = ethnography
-setting up experiments in the present, recording what you see through time, this is what must have occured in the past = experimental archaeology
-connecting statics to dynamics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
culture is an adaptive system; subsystems in dynamic equilibrium (study guide picture)
-culture = everything works together in a system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Culture History
1. data retrieval
2. classification and seriation
3. outline history
Problem-Oriented Research
1. Research Question
2. Hypotheses
3. Test Implications
4. Data Retrieval
5. Analysis
6. Results and Rethink |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| how we explain large transitions over time |
|
|
Term
| Jarmo, Iraq (Robert Braidwood) |
|
Definition
| -guided by a clear research question, so exemplifies processual archaeology; origins of domestication |
|
|
Term
| Broken K Pueblo and James Hill and William Longacre |
|
Definition
| -matrilineal pueblos in past? since they are matrilineal in present..exemplifies processual archaeology |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| screening, attention to sampling bias, being very explicit about questions and methods |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Is behavior predictable? Do humans always act rationally?
-Do universal laws exist?
-Is culture adaptive?
-Is archaeology really an objective science?
-Can we really do hyptohesis testing? |
|
|
Term
| Postprocessual archaeology (1980-present) |
|
Definition
| -influenced by: postmodernism, critical/marxist theory, and feminist critiques of science |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-postprocessual archaeologist
-wanted to explain ceramic designs in different places
-using ethnoarchaeology, analyzed decorations on groud pots (cow and pig decorations separate -->believed to symbolically protect men and women from pollution)
-remains must be read and interpreted, have to focus on cultural context |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| remains must be read; not explanation |
|
|
Term
| Critical and Marxist archaeologies |
|
Definition
-the kinds of questions we ask are colored by what we see in our modern world
-feminism critiques of science
-the kind of biology being produced, is being produced for present day concerns |
|
|
Term
| Feminist philosophies of science |
|
Definition
-Margaret Conkey and Janet Spector
-feminist views introduced -->people reevaluating prior interpretations of the ancient world; different research methods |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the major differences between CH, PA, and PPA? |
|
Definition
-CH
-PA
+behavior
+laws
+adaptation
+environment
+technology
+economy
-PPA
+historical context
+symbolism
+ritual
+identity
+agency
+memory |
|
|
Term
| What are the major things of CH, PA, and PPA that get used today? |
|
Definition
-CH: seriation, classification, settlement pattern research
-PA: scientific method, explicity, systematic recovery, sampling
-PPA: emphasis on meaning, multiple interpretations, recognition of present, natural and social science |
|
|
Term
| what might an archaeology of the future be like? |
|
Definition
-community based, participatory
-non-invasive
-cultural resource management (CRM) |
|
|
Term
| How do you start archaeological work? |
|
Definition
-previous research at this location? known sites from those reports? chronology already worked out? how old?
-what is your research question? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-the research question defines the scale of analysis
-large to small
-Marco-region: broader area to answer broader questions
-Region: local region (i.e., one place (flood plain, etc.))
-Site: one place to answer small question (what was life like?)
-Feature: a building, hearth, etc. (What did people eat?)
-Microscale: pot, etc. (What was in that pot?) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-going out and asking people to show you where go out on the field
-looking out at river cuts, road cuts, etc. |
|
|
Term
| remote sensing--what is it? when would you use it? benefits? |
|
Definition
-satellite imagery using false color to look at landscape change; terrain will determine whether to use remote sensing or LIDAR
-Benefits= non-invasive, more efficient & cost-effective; discover things you can't see on the ground, conveys complex material, can study remote areas...biggest advantage = non destructive!
-to use when you are NOT in jungle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-light detection and ranging; measures reflection of objects
-smaller wavelengths than radar = accuracy and resolution
-equipment mounted on small aircraft
-to use when: in jungle because it penetrates foliage |
|
|
Term
| What is left to find? Major issues |
|
Definition
1. How things are used and deposited by people (cultural formation processes)
2. How things decay or preserve (natural formation processes)
3. Samples! Things archaeologists do (what we find is always incomplete) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gradual (planned) vs. rapid (unplanned) |
|
|
Term
| cultural formation processes |
|
Definition
| processes resulting from human action; acquisition of raw material through manufacture, use, discard, loss, or burial |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the study of the processes affecting materials after death and deposition |
|
|
Term
| Preservation / decay of organic and inorgani materials (Which materials survive? When, where, and why?) |
|
Definition
Organic Materials do not preserve well
-plant materials, animal products bones (things once living)
Inorganic materials survive best
-stone, pottery, metals, mud houses, etc.
- can be broken, battered, eroded, BUT won't decay |
|
|
Term
| Preservation / decay of organic and inorganic materials (Which materials survive? When, where, and why?) |
|
Definition
Organic Materials do not preserve well
-plant materials, animal products bones (things once living)
Inorganic materials survive best
-stone, pottery, metals, mud houses, etc.
- can be broken, battered, eroded, BUT won't decay |
|
|
Term
| natural formation processes |
|
Definition
| proceses that include how nature affects the archaeological record |
|
|
Term
| How do you test and understand the taphonomic proceeses? |
|
Definition
| Experimental taphonomy testing usually consists of exposing the remains of organisms to various altering processes, and then examining the effects of the exposure. |
|
|
Term
| Experimental archaeology and ethnoarchaeolgoy differences |
|
Definition
-experimental: setting up an experiment to replicate
-ethnoarchaeology: looking at modern pieces |
|
|
Term
| sample bias in archaeology |
|
Definition
| -only find a mere fraction of what was going on in the past --> what wer find is always incomplete |
|
|
Term
| Under what conditions do organics preserve well? |
|
Definition
1. lack of oxygen
2. little fluctuation (i.e., constant temperature or water environment)
3. mineral replacement (fossilization)
4. human actions (chance events, i.e., heating / charring; impressions)
5. Natural disasters |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sites with good preservation and why |
|
Definition
1. Ozette Site, Washington = wet preservation
2. Bog bodies of Denmark (skin, nails) = wet preservation
3. Southwest, U.S. (perishables) = arid conditions
4. Egypt (mummies) = arid conditions
5. Inca mummy bundles, knotted strings, textiles = arid conditions
6. Chimu Architecture, Chan Chan (mud brick) = arid conditions
7. The Ice Man of Austria- Italy (Otzi) = frozen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| poop; good because we can see plant remains, parasites, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
stand in straight line, 20 m apart, walk in straight line, marking artifacts until the end
-for regional scale data |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -full coverage (100% sample), probabilistic sample (defined %; random, systematic, stratified), non-probabilistic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-defined percent (when not enough time, labor, or money)
-RANDOM: numbers from sample units chosen at random
-SYSTEMATIC: 1st element drawn randomly, others followed in intervals
-STRATIFIED: tiered sample (some areas covered more intensely; i.e., skip over cliffs, lakes, etc.) |
|
|
Term
| Non-probabilistic sampling |
|
Definition
| selection of sample units not based on statistical principles; judgmental in that it is based on the judgment of the person selecting the sample |
|
|
Term
| When would you use these different sampling strategies? What kind of data do they provide? |
|
Definition
-Most sampling strategies are non-probabilistic because most will go where they know they may find something.
-Probabilistic is used when you want to make generalizations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| topographic map, compass and long tape, GPS, notebook / PDA, sketchmap |
|
|
Term
| topographic maps (What are they? How do you read them? When and why are they used?) |
|
Definition
| -represent the 3D shape of land surfaces in 2D media; accurate within 12 meters |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| connect points of equal elevation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the elevation change between 2 contour lines |
|
|
Term
| GPS (rover and handheld) (why do you use them? advantages and disadvantages?) |
|
Definition
rover = communicates with satellites by triangulating your position (3+ satellite)
handheld= accurate within 3-50 m
high precision = 20 cm RTK
survey grade = can eliminate error (2 mm accuracy) BUT have to do it post processsing |
|
|
Term
| sketch maps are used for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What kinds of information are surface survey data going to give us? How might these data be problematic? |
|
Definition
-Surface survey data will give us:
-Will be problematic because of surface bias:only see things made of sturdier material, things that preserve well, the most modern deposits, sites that don't decay, larger sites |
|
|
Term
| How do we test surface bias? |
|
Definition
| -Groundtruthing either with Shovel Test Pits (STPs) and soil probe/soil auger |
|
|
Term
| geophysical remote sensing |
|
Definition
-identify site boundaries and locate underground features
-magnetic data to make magnetic maps of a site |
|
|
Term
| magnetometry / gradiometry |
|
Definition
-measures differences in magnetic alignment in iron oxide; will detect burned areas fired clay, ironworks
-patterns of magnetism in soil |
|
|
Term
| ground penetrating radar (GPR) |
|
Definition
-sends pulses into the ground, echoes bounce back against dense objects; doesnt work well in clay
-non destructive |
|
|
Term
| What can survey data tell us? |
|
Definition
| Survey data can tell us: 1. Site register / inventory (date, cultural affiliation, site use) 2. settlement pattern (layout of human settlement across a landscape; environmental parameters) 3. regional economic and political organization (site size hierarchies) |
|
|
Term
| How do archaeolgists define sites? |
|
Definition
-where artifacts are most concentrated (dense)
-high density areas of overlap |
|
|
Term
| Site size hierarchies and how can they tell us about sociopolitical organization? |
|
Definition
-continuum from smaller to larger sites
-distribution of sites according to population or size estimate
-bigger circles = bigger sites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
on a boundless plain, sites distributed by size
-hierarchically nested pattern
-fewer large centers, more smaller ones
-distributed by function (the most stuff going on)
-more levels in hierarchy = more complex society |
|
|
Term
| limits of settlement pattern data |
|
Definition
| -assumes that SIZE means something; large-scale patterns only; sampling / surface issues |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-only when necessary; dont want to destroy site
-to answer a research question
-mitigation --> know a site will be destroyed soon by another project |
|
|
Term
| What are the steps involved in excavation? |
|
Definition
1. Define site boundaries
2. Controlled surface collection
3. Lay out the units
4. Record provenience
5. excavation documentation
6. screening
7. collect samples
8. excavation drawings
9. record stratigraphy |
|
|
Term
| Topographic vs. Planimetric map |
|
Definition
-topographic shows elevation
-planimetric is a flat map (like a campus map) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
excavation methods
-test pits (1x1 m): like telephone booths; goal = chronology
-trenches: to get a good, continuous line / sense of stratigraphy
-horizontal clearing/excavation : big, broad areas; open up everything; to use if you wanted to understand relationships at a particular point in time; goal = spatial context |
|
|
Term
| controlled surface collection |
|
Definition
| materials on surface collected, bagged, analyzed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| shovel, trowls, dental picks, toothbrush, icepick, bucket |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| horizontal and vertical position of an artifact (measures depth by 2 coordinates; below surface; below datum) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| point from which we take all measurements at a site |
|
|
Term
| EDM ("electronic distance mapper" or total station) |
|
Definition
| distance, height, and angle to 1 mm |
|
|
Term
| GIS (Geographic Information System) |
|
Definition
-vertical and spatail date; layers; expandable (add data years later)
-to do archaeology, you need to know GIS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| put through wire mesh of particular size |
|
|
Term
| plan and profile drawings |
|
Definition
plan view = projected surfaces, flat map (above ground)
profile view = of pits and cuts; stratigraphic profile (below ground) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| diagram that represents the relationships between strata |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. wash and label artifacts
2. artifact analysis
3. data entry
4. collections management |
|
|
Term
| collections management issues |
|
Definition
-where will these things be stored?
-display, storage, discard, alternatives |
|
|
Term
| relative vs. absolute dating |
|
Definition
-relative: placing things into order of older and younger
-absolute: getting a specific age in years |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -undisturbed contexts, objects / artifacts in situ (place where originally put), something in same deposit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-ordering of artifacts
-frequency and contextual
-assumes a given style or set of artifacts is only popular for a certain length of time
-know the before and after, but not the specific year |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ordering artifacts by frequency of styles / types; battle ship curves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ordering assemblages by association of artifacts into groups |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-diagnostic artifacts that help date strata across regions
-very good time keepers
-relative dating technique |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-counting tree rings laid down in annual cycles
-overlap multiple samples to get a sequence
-need preserved wood, seasons, and a master sequence to get year tree was cut
-8500 years to present
-Bristle Cone Pine Tree (5000 years) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-annual shoreline deposits caused by melting glaciers
-15000 years to present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any of two or more forms of a chemical element, having the same number of protons in the nucleus, or the same atomic number, but having different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus, or different atomic weights. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
an absolute dating technique invented in the 1950s by Willard Libby
-all organisms absorb carbon from atmosphere; all formerly living things can be dated (especially if preserved well)
-carbon 14 changes to carbon 12 when decaying (half life of 5730 years)
-45000 to present
-encompasses most of human history, so most common |
|
|
Term
| Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) Dating |
|
Definition
-works well on volcanic rock
-potassium isotope changes to Argon
-half life = 1.3 billion years, so used on materials with age 100,000 years to 1 bya (early humans in east Africa) |
|
|
Term
| Uranium (U) series dating |
|
Definition
-rocks rich in calcium (limestone), especially caves
-used on things that date 500,000-50,000 years ago (early humans) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
238U in volcanic glasses divides upon cooling so leaves microscopic "tracks" in glass
-5 to 1 million years ago (early hominids) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. thermoluminescence (TL) dating
2. optical dating
3. electron spin resonance
-must know surrounding context / sediment |
|
|
Term
| thermoluminescence dating |
|
Definition
| -minerals exposed to heat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -time since bleaching cause by exposure to sunlight |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| time since burial of inorganic material in b |
|
|
Term
| obsidian hydration dating |
|
Definition
a "rind" forms on surface of obsidian through water hybridization, thickness of rind indicates time since breakage
-i.e., a stone tool, freshly chipped, water molecules adhere and make rine
-100,000 years to present
-must know local chemical and climatological data to "calibrate" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-based on shifts in the earth's magnetic field
-iron particles line up to magnetic field at time of firing/ burning
-match up object / material in question to master sequence
-2000 years to present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-old world = 6000 to present
-new world = 5000 to present (Americas) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-climate, vegetation, geography, topography, resource distribution, scenery
-everything going on = how things are being used |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the past environment of an area during a given period of its history |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-food strategies
-what was eaten? which seasons? how obtained? how prepared? who participates? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-distance to resources
-hunter / gathererers: 2 hour walk to collect resources
-farmers: 1 hour walk |
|
|
Term
| Is what we see now what was there? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are there "pristine" environments? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in what ways have humans changed the environment? |
|
Definition
| -regular burning, harvesting -->management |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -affects population and distribution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-overgrazing animals, cutting too many trees, not maintaining terraces
-Easter Island (Palm Forest in AD 1200, by the 1700s the population had crashed, trees can no longer grow: european disease and pesky rats probably caused population crash) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Iraq
Once was fertile crescent; irrigation brough salt onto land |
|
|
Term
| Glaciation and sea levels |
|
Definition
water table rises --> restricts amount of land to live on
-ancient coastlines now under water (at times up to 100 m lower) |
|
|
Term
| Pleiostocene / Holocene boundary |
|
Definition
| upper boundary in South America |
|
|
Term
| Why did cold adapted animals die out? |
|
Definition
| too warm, overhunting, human takeover of environmental zone |
|
|
Term
| Stages of food production |
|
Definition
1. procurement
2. processing
3. cooking
4. storage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| eats both plants and animals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1. foraging 2. horticulture 3. agriculture 4. pastoralism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-high mobility (movement)
-seasonal dispersement and aggregation
-food collectors, not food producers
-small groups of people related through kinship and marriage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-non intensive farming (garden plots)
-simple tools (bison scapula)
-shifting cultivation (slash and burn agriculture)
-mixed economies (still hunting and gathering from wild) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-intensive farming = high labor demand!
-domesticated animals, irrigation, terracing
-increased sedentism
-associated with larger, permanent communities |
|
|
