US Energy Use and US Building Energy Use

Buildings > 40 % US energy

HVAC/comfort Use > 40% of building energy

The three general "good" sustainable design strategies

1) load avoidance via shape, orientation, shading, etc

2) load reduction/elimination via passive techniques

3) load supply via mechanical system

Building Type: Internal Load Dominated (ILD)

Building Type: Skin Load Dominated (SLD)

1) thinner with most spacing having exterior exposure

2) outside conditions play most significant role

3) daylighting typically easily available

4) increased exterior area may result in higher heating/cooling

5) can have more efficient use of solar energy

6) thin shape better for natural ventilation

Cold Climate SLD

Emphasis on insulation 

look for passive heating opportunities

high performance windows with high SHGC

berm on north side (protect from cold winds)

Cold Climate/ILD

perimeter heating

use cool outdoor air to balance internal gains

similar recommendations as SLD

Hot, Dry Climate/SLD

Insulation

thermal mass on exterior

shading

evaporative cooling

windows with low SHGC

Hot, Dry Climate/ILD

thermal mass (interior/exterior)

shading

evaporative/night cooling

low SHGC windows

Hot, Wet Climate/SLD

shade and/or reflect

insulation

ventilate but watch for moisture

seal building

Hot, Wet Climate/ILD

shade/reflect

insulate

seal

low SHGC windows

Temperate Climate for both SLD/ILD

shade

open building up as much as possible

low shgc windows

Why Have HVAC?

1) comfort: meets heating and cooling loads

2) humidity control

3) indoor air quality

4) other building processes

General Space Necessary for HVAC system?

5-9% of building floor area and 3-4' of floor-floor height

HVAC: Primary System (Central Plant)

energy conversion equipment

provide chilled/hot water (or steam) to secondary system

HVAC: Secondary System

comfort delivery or space conditioning equipment

either air, air-water, water (hydronic) or other (gas, etc.)

Air-Based HVAC System

1) uses air as heat transport medium

2) controls space air temperature

3) meet sensible and latent loads

4) delivers fresh air

Water-Based HVAC System

1) uses water as heat transport medium

2) water more efficient medium than air

3) seeks comfort via convection and radiation

4) much more efficient than air-based system

5) doesn't deal with IAQ

Air vs. Water HVAC System

1) air better at sensible load and outide air handling

2) water more efficient at transporting and energy efficient

3) air much more known in states, so water > initial cost

4) air much much more space than water

Air-Water HVAC System

limit air flow

use local water coil for most conditioning

comfort improved via user control

benefits of both air and water systems

Baseboards and Radiators (Hydronic System)

natural convection from hot "coil" surface to air (some radiation)

typically used as baseboards or radiators in old buildings

adv:

1) simple system with/ heat where it is needed

2) combines easily with air system

disadv:

1) steam-based difficult to control

2) not for cooling

3) no outside air

Water Tubes (Hydronic Radiant System)

typically in floor or ceiling

50%+ of energy as radiation to spaces (and convection)

potential for heating and cooling

configurations:

1) floor concrete

2) under floor

3) ceiling panels

adv: 

1) better comfort at more tolerant thermostat setting

2) more energy efficient

3) no ducts or diffusers

dis:

1) no outside air or latent

2) condensatoin (through cooling)

3) slower response (compared to heating air instead of surface)

Chilled Beams (Hydronic System)

chilled water coil hung from or incorporated into ceiling

hot air from space rises and is cooled by coil

radiation from chilled beam to occupants

types:

1) active: integrated with forced air system and air flow limited to ventilation requirements

2) passive: seperate system with condensation reabsorbed to space late

adv:

1) limited duct space requirements for active system

2) water pipes relatively small

3) brings comfort where needed

disadv:

1) must combine with an air based system

Wood Heating (Fuel/Other Local System)

Examples: wood/pellet stove or fireplace (with blowers)

adv:

1) heating capacity large and aditional abiance aesthetic

disadv:

1) temperature variation

2) user must supply fuel and dispose of ash

3) consider the air source *use external* (use internal air source, then more inflitration and bring cold air inside, but with external, there is a minimal infiltration impact)

Electric Resistance Heaters (Fuel/Other Local System)

1) baseboards: inefficient b/c only ~30% energy used from fuel, so higher electric cost

2) unit heaters/ventilators

Electric Radiant Ceiling (Fuel/Other Local System)

similar concept to hydronic radiant

often lightweight material for faster response

Radiant Ceiling Panels (Fuel/Other Local System)

same concept as ceiling electric

sometimes used more for perimeter heating

can also be hydronic panels

Gas-Fired and Electric Ratiant Heaters (Fuel/Other Local System)

high temperature heater, most heat delivered via radiation

impact of heat location dependent

works well in entries, open areas, high inflitration spaces

(think entranceway to hotels during winter)

Heating Thorough Electricity Good?

adv: 1) convenient and 2) minimal space requirements

disadv: 1) electrivity expensive and 2) process of generating electricity inefficient in the first place

Air System Components

duct

fan: centrifugal, axial

damper

mixing box

coils

terminal unit

other: humidifier/dehumidifier, evaporative cooler, heat exchangers, turning vanes, filters

Duct: Air System Component

transport path for air from one point to another

supply: from air handler (AHU) to spaces

return: from spaces to AHU
 

Fan: Air System Component

Primer mover of air through ducts (increase pressure)

Centrifugal:

1) used more often as supply fans

2) higher delta P --> higher flow rates

3) usually more efficient

Axial:

1) Used more often as return fans

2) Lower delta P --> lower flow rates

3) Less efficient than centrifugal

Fan Flow Types: Air System Component

Fixed:

1) Lower First Cost

2) Varies Supply temperature to meet load

3) Higher operating costs potentially

Variable:

1) Higher First Cost

2) Varies flow (first) to meet load

3) Lower operating cost through less fan energy

Damper: Air System Component

flow control device

found in duct, terminal unit, or other equipment

Mixing Box: Air System Component

device which mixes two or more inlet streams

examples:

1) outside air mixing box

2)dual duct mixing box

Coils: Air System Component

adds/removes heat to/from air stream (may remove moisture)

energy exchanged with fluid circulating inside pipe

Examples: heating coil, cooling coil, etc.

Terminal Unit: Air System Component

dampers or local fan used to control flow and/or temperature

equipment is distributed

may mix air streams

may change air temperature through reheat or recirculation of local air

Single Duct All-Air System

one supply duct delivers air to all spaces

reheating or flow control varies conditioning at each space

adv: only need room for one supply duct, one return duct

disadv: may be slightly limited in controls and flexibility

Single Zone Draw Through: Single Duct All-Air System

1) simplest all-air system, meets all conditioning needs

2) system can be in zone or at remote location, with or withough ducts

3) less ductwork --> lower pressure drop, fan energy

4) systems can be turned off without affecting adjacent systems

5) application: residential, small buildings

Terminal Reheat: Single Duct All-Air System

single supply duct to multiple spaces

local temperature varied by reheat coil

need for reheat wastes energy in summer

humidigy issues when supply temperature varies

Variable Air Volume (VAV): Single Duct All-Air System

objective: reduce flow rate when loads are not as high to save fan energy

flow rate varied locally

terminal devices may provide heating

concerns about IAQ and humitiy at lower flow rates

application: offices, many building types

Fan-Powered Variable Air Volume (VAV): Single Duct All-Air System

air circulated in main duct only outside air

local air recirculated via terminal fan

applications: perimeter spaces that require heating

Direct Expansion (DX) Packaged Unit System: Single Duct All-Air System

relatively inexpensive, easier to replace

units have relatively short (appliance) life

noise from compressor can be problematic

Double Duct All-Air System

two supply ducts deliver air to spaces--one cold air, one hot air

air from each duct mixed at space

adv: better controllability and flexibility

disadv: higher initial and operating costs, larger space requirements

Dual Duct: Double Duct All-Air System

total air flow rate constant

volume through each duct varies

Dual Duct VAV possible

applications: museums, assembly spaces, etc.

Fan Coil: Air-Water System

forced convection (fan) from hot/cold coil via circulation of local air

water circulated to unit from central source

outside air: via central source or locally

configurations: 1) vertical (wall) 2) chase enclosed 3) horizontal (ceiling)

applications: hotels, hospitals, labs

Induction: Air-Water System

ducts circulate fresh air only

room air "induced" to recirculate

good air mixing and smaller ducts, higher fan energy (high pressure)

Unit Heater/Unit Ventilator

manily provide heating

may cool and/or provide outside air

applications: garages, warehouses, mechanical rooms, greenhouses, etc.

AHU Room Main Components

Ducts: supply, return, outside air

Coils: preheat, cooling, heating

Fans: supply, return

Mixing Box

Filters

HVAC System Types

Single-Duct All Air System: single zone draw through, terminal reheat, variable air volume (VAV), Direct Expansion Packaged Unit System

Double Duct All-Air System: Dual Duct

Air Water System: Fan coil, Induction, Unit Heater/Unit Ventilator

Ducts

transport path for air from point to another

shapes: 1) round 2) square/rectangular 3) other

Potential Problems:

1) pressure losses due to friction or elevation change

2) thermal gains/losses due to exchange of heat through duct wall

3) sound: flow noise caused by air movement or transmitted noise

Duct Goals

Minimize duct sizes and travel

1) smaller impact on building

2) smaller initial costs

3) smaller heat losses from ducts

Minimize pressure loss and noise

1) smaller fans, less fan energy use

2) Avoid air system related distractions

Competiting Effects: Duct Goals

Minimizing space=smaller ducts=higher velocity and noise (more energy)

Minimizing noise/velocity/friction=bigger ducts=more space

Reasonable solution must balance these goals

Most Efficient Duct Size?

round duct has smallest perimeter per unit cross-sectional area --> most energy efficient

rectangular ducts: "less efficient" as aspect ratio increases

Diffuser (Grille, Register): All-Air System Components

end point of supply duct or starting point of return duct

delivers aire from system into space

architect has some control over type of diffuser, placement, etc.

Importance:

1) impact thermal comfort

2) determines "ventilation efficiency" (fraction of conditioned air to occupied volume)

Diffuser throw:

larger diffuser, lower velocity, shorter throw (less noise)

Ceiling Diffusers Adv/Disadv

Adv: generally result in "well mixed" air and can hide behing dropped ceiling

Disadv: dumping, where jets detach from ceiling or direct incorrectly (leaving stagnant air by walls)

Side Wall Diffuser and Displacement Ventilation

Characteristics: temperature of air "jet", throw of diffuser, and proximity to ceiling

Displacement Ventilation: use buoyancy and low flow rate to keep conditioner air in occupied region

Floor Diffuser

compromise betweemn ciling / side wall diffuser

can be used for displacement ventilation

achieves mixing similar to ceiling diffuser

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

air w/out contaminants at harmful concentrations

<20% of people complaining

Increasing problems because > time indoors and > chemicals in buildings

Source of Problems: odors (humans/building) and irritants that incrase distress (Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), Ozone, and mineral fibers, toxic particulate like asbestos, mold/fungi, and radon/other soil source gases)

Lack of IAQ class: Sick Building Syndrome (SBS)

acute discomfort complaints for 2+ weeks, 20% of occupants, and symptoms end when leaving building

Symptoms: headache, fatigue, nauseam eye irriration, memory loss, respiratory irritation

Lack of IAQ Class: Building Related Illness (BRI)

any disease caused by exposure to indoor contaminants and felt long after leaving building

Ex: Legionnaires Disease

IAQ Equipment

Exhaust Fan

Outside Air Pre-Heating

Filters

Air Washers

Electronic Air Cleaners

U/V Radiation

CO2 monitoring

IAQ Equipment: Exhaust Fan

central/local position

used in problem areas (bathroom, kitchen, process/lab areas)

Create local negatice pressure to avoid contaminants leaking to other areas

IAQ Equipment: Outside Aire Preheating

reduce outside air energy costs

earth tube

transpired colar collector

double-skinned facade

heat exchanges:

1) heat recovery ventilators (HRV): sensible heat exchanger with fan

2) Energy recovery ventilators (ERV): sensible and latent heat exchanger with fan

3) Energy Transfer Wheels: coating within the honeycomb structure transports moisture

IAQ Equipment: Filters

Particulate (media) filters:

pleated material strains out large particles

capture smaller particles on impact

Adsorption filters (gas removal):

activated-charcoal filters or porous pellet filters

Other IAQ Equipment

air washers: spray fluid to humidify and clean air

Electronic air cleaners: use voltage to remove particulates

UV Radiation: uses lamps to kill fungi, bacteria, etc.

CO2 monitoring:

Humans exhale CO2, and control outside air based on # of people in given space (can monitor for other contaminants as well)

Air Exhaust and Intake Suggestions

Exhaust: exhaust as high as possible, wind/buoyancy take exhaust away, and wind at higher speeds higher up

Intake: avoid loading docks, smoking areas, exhaust stack location, and plumbing vents (best on lower 1/3 of building), and ground intake susceptible to debris

Chillers and Heat Pumps

collection of equipment that provides chilled water or refigerant for secondary system

convert electrical energy or waste heat into cooling potential

components linked through refigerant

Chillers vs Heat Pumps

Chiller: cooling only, with variety of configurations, sizes, and cycles

Heat Pumps: cooling and/or heating: heat pumped in opposite direction fo natural flow, and typically smaller

Compression Cycle: Condenser (1-->2)

Refigerant Condenses from vapor to liquid

Rejection of heat to surroundings or another fluid at lower temperature than refigerant in order to change phase

Chiller efficiency depends on condenser temp (the higher the temperature of environment, the harder to change to a liquid)

Compression Cycle: Condenser Types

Air cooled: condenser water to system, blow cool water over system

Water Cooled: keep condenser water into pipe and run it into groundwater source (possibility for contamination)

Evaporative: same process as sweating (cool water/air)

Cooling Tower: take condenser water and spray it w/in

hyperbolic device (typically used at powerplants)

Ground: popular now, because can get lower temps than above ground, no longer visible on outside of building, 30%-50% efficiency though ground, and typical in Oklohama

Compression Cycle: Expansion Valve (2-->3)

natural expansion from high to low pressure liquid

"control" device

Usually no to little heat transfer (adiabotic)

Compression Cycle: Evaporator (3-->4)

heat added to refigerant (evaporative)

produces chilled water which is pumped to coil

evaporator can be coil in air stream (DX-direction expansion coil)

Importance:

lower evaporator temperature (cooling), less efficient and lowers capacity

higher evaporator temperature (cooling) leads to moisture removal and higher flow rates

Compression Cycle: Compressor (4-->1)

Nearly adiabatic (no heat transfer loss) compression from low to high pressure vapor

work (energy imput) added to system and that is done on the refigerant

avoid liquid in compressor since it could damage system

Types of Compressors

Reciprocating

Centrifugal

Vane

Screw

Scroll

Refigerants

fluid used to absorb heat/energy inot one area and rejects it in another (primarily used in vapor-compression cycle, secondarly pumped around and exhanges heat)

Concerns: energy efficiency, environmental effects, safety concerns (toxicity and flamability), and cost/availability

Absorption as Alternative to Compression Cycle

Absorption: uses heat instead of work and mixture physict to provide cooling with steam, solar power, and "waste heat"

New Components:

1) Generator: releases water vapor from solution by adding heat (water boils off)

2) Absorber: absorbs water vapor back into solution

Uses:

1) large, industrial installations with plentiful waste heat

2) smaller HVAC and appliances

Efficiency:

Not very efficient (COP <1 to 2)

Thermal Energy Storage: Chillers

Store energy at night when cost of power much less

most power used during day

cycling and building power plant expensive

Use stored energy during day to reduce need to run chillers

Chilled Water Storage: Chillers

More energy efficient

Requires large amount of space

Benefit: large water reserve for fires

Ice Storage: Chillers

Moderate Space Requirements

Save Money but not necessarily energy

Heating Equipment Types

Electric Resistance Heating

Heat Pump in Heating Mode

Solar Panels

Boiler (water and steam)

Furnace (air)

Boilers

equipment that provies hot water/steam for building

Capacity range:15 kW --> 30+ kW

Fuels: Coal, wood, fuel oil, (natural) gas, electricity

Uses:

1) steam: heating coils, hot water heat exchangers, absorption cooling, laundry, sterilizers

2) water: heating coils, domestic hot water (DHW)

Boiler Efficiency

Goal: most efficient transfer of heat from flue gas to water

Fuel Boiler: efficiency= (input-stack loss)/input

Non-condensing: 75-86%

Condensing: 88-95%

Electric Boiler: effiiciency=output/input

efficiency: 92-96+%

Space Requirements based on horsepower (HP)

Redundancy

selecting several smaller pieces of equipment rather than one very large device

Why Beneficial:

1) building operation: better to limp along than completely shut down, and can preform maintenance on small portion than on one large machine

2) energy efficiency: equipment preformance and operating strategy can be "optimized" by varying load on each device to minimize energy cost (operates at optimal level at ~75-80%)

Centralization Vs. Decentralization

Centralization: most or all of primary and/or secondary system in one (or few) location(s)

Adv: redundancy, equipment away from occupied areas, more expensive first cost but last longer, generally more energy efficient due to operation flexibility

Decentralization: some  or all equipment distributed throughout building (can be floor-by-floor or area-by-area basis)

Adv: flexibility in placement, lower first cost, and standardized maintenance supplies

District Heating and Cooling

large scale centralized primary systems--used for groups of buildings

producing hot water/steam and/or chilled water at remote site

Pump fluids in underground pipes to buildings

Cogeneration

Use of heat from electrical generation for space heating or absorption chillers

Types: turbines and engines, or fuel cells (hydrogen)

Alternate Energy

Solar: hot water heaters, PV arrays, building integrated PV (such as window as partially transparent solar collector, yet reduced view), roof shingels

Wind: horixontal or vertical axis

Biomass: ethanol, biodiesel

For solar: efficiency is generally 10-12%, some reaching 20% (the more in bulk purchased, the cheaper it is)

Water Characteristics

origin/source

quality (potential uses)

amount (storage/flow rate)

pressure

hardness (amount of -CO3 in water and considered hard when carbonate level greater than 65 ppm)

pH value

taste, odor, color, toxicity, etc.

temperature:

1) high temp means smaller tank, larger heating element, limit bacteria growth

2) low temp means larger tank, smaller heating element, less energy, possible to use low grade heat source

Domestic Hot Water (DHW)

to serve general hot water needs other than space heating

heating methods: 1) direct (electric or gas fired) and 2) indirect (heat transported elsewhare via other fluid)

Types: 1) storage tank water heater (most common for smaller applications), 2) circulating storage water heater (heating component separate from storage) and 3) solar hot water heater (tankless)

DHW Losses and Potential Solutions

Losses

1) Tank--heat loss to surroundings, or 2) Pipe--heat loss as water flows/sits (the greater distance, larger

pipe -->larger losses plus water usage increases)

Potential Solutions

1) Recirculation--keep all water in pipes at high temperatures by circulating and reheating, still have pipe losses, pump electric consumption, does reduce water consumption

2) shorten total pipe length by efficient layout of system

3) Distribution of equipment

4) Use tankless system

Solar Water Heaters

Passive: 

1) Batch system: black painted storage tank, simple but high potential for loss

2) Thermosiphon system: no pump but tank must be higher than collector

Active and Direct:

1) Drain-down system: uses DHW directly, drains water out (waste) when system not collecting

Active and Indirect:

1) Drain-back system: separate loops, water drains out of colector at night to avoic freezing, and a glycol-based system

Water Equipment

Pipes

Pumps

Water meter

storage tank/heater

fixtures: WC, lavatories, showers

softeners/treatment systems

valves and expansion joints

insulation

Water pressure

Pushes water through system

pressure losses/drops due to friction, fixtures, and changes in elevation

Upfeed, Pumped Upfeed, and Downfeed

Upfeed: used in smaller buildings (residential), no pump, relies on water main pressure to overcome all losses

Pumped upfeed: medium sized systems, and pump needed to maintain adequate pressure because the higher the building, the more likely it is to overcome the street main pressure

Downfeed: Large (tall) buildings (~150'), requires pumps and storage tanks; space, structural, and architectural considerations

Wast Water Sources and Concerns

Sources: bathrooms, kitchens, and industrial processes

Concerns: odor (vent required to avoid siphoning of waste line through top of building); Bends/Cleanouts (avoid 90 degree bends that would prevent flow); backflow prevention (avoide waste coming back into clean air/fresh water), so bring in water abover where waste water goes

Waste Handling

Primary (settling of solids and anaerobic digestion): septic tank (two chambers made of concrete or steel or fiberglass, that allows solids to sink to bottom. Stream is about 70% purified upon exit), aerobic treatment units (use aerobic digestion, more energy and maintenance intensive, but smaller)

Secondary: seepage pit/cesspool, disposal field, mound with leaching bed, buried sand filters

Site Planning and Design

Surface Porosity: methods (roof retention like green roof)

Roof Retention: Green Roof

Porous Pavement: porous concrete, incremental paving, open-celled pavers

Site Design:

slow runoff by increasing water absorbed locally; avoid large, continuous impermeable surfaces; drain roads, parking, and roofs into planted areas; stormwater gardens and ponds

Building Roof Drainage and Components

Goals: divert water to storm sewer system; prevent water from coming into occupied spaces; remove water which enters building as quickly as possible

Components: Roof drains; Gutters; downspouts or leaders (vertical) and conductors (horizontal); Sump pumps

Building Drainage Principles and Issues

Residential/small buildings: handle storm water on-site if possible

Other buildings/paved areas: drain into storm sewer; IL state code --> storm sewer separate from waste sewer

Issues:

1) Ground Water: water permeating footings/foundation and underdrainage

2) condensation --> insulation or vapor barrier may be needed for systems that drain though interior; entryways free of water

3) Aesthetic effect

4) Exposed pools of water (breeding area)

5) Leak-tight roofing

6) Presence and grading of non-porous surfaces

7) Local and state codes and expectations

Transportation in Buildings

Elevators 

Escalators (retail, entertainment, transportation)

Moving walkways/ramps (airports/baggage claim)

chairlifts (retrolift)

Dumbwaiters (small objects)

Tube transport system

Elevator Types

Hydraulic: fluid pressure moves elevator; low first cost; higher operational costs; slow (<200 fpm); shorter distances only

Traction: cables and counterweights; much higher first costs; lower operating costs; faster (<200 up to 2000 fpm); either geared (slower speeds, smaller motors) or gearless (faster speeds, larger motors)

Elevator Preformance Issues

Waiting times (minimize)

Transportation rate (quick)

Acceleration/deceleration (smooth, comfortable, rapid)

Loading/unloading (rapid--3'6" doors allow simultaneous load/unload

Door operation (smooth)

Space/cost

Architectural appearance

Safety (fireproof hoistway, emergency stopping capability, ADA) cutoff traction, apply brake, and then apply emergency brake wedges

Interval Time (I)

Lobby dispatch time

Average time between departure of cars from lobby

Round Trim Time (RT)

Average time required for a car to go thorugh set cycle: start/end at lobby 

Function of car size, floor to floor height, elevator speed, and the number of floors in the building

Handling Capacity (HC) and PHC

maximum passengers transported in 5 minutes

PHC (% handling capacity)

Car Capacity (p)

Number of passengers car can handle

Fire Safety Objectives

Protection of Life: minimize injuries and deats; use of sprinklers, exits, emergency lighting, etc.

Protection of Property: structure, equipment, special concerns (artwork), etc.

Continuity of Operation: HVAC, power, water, business

Sources of Ignition

Chmeical (spontaneous combustion) , electrical, or mechanical

Results of a fire

During fire: flame and heat <25% of fatalities, smoke and other gases >75%

After fire: destruction of property b/c of fire, but also water and other fluid damage

Fire: Triangle of Need

Fuel: building structure, construction, furnishings, etc.

Temperature (high)

Oxygen: fire needs O2 to burn, and we need O2 to breathe

Protection of Life

Allow occupants to safely exit building before fire department arrives (firefighters concentrate on fire, not rescue) (note: 30% of fire deaths occur when cut-off from exits)

Methods: provide clear pathway to exits; isolate fire exits clear from smoke; minimize distance to exits (dead end limit, the allowable distance of hallways with only 1 end); control number of people per exit; meet exit stair requirements; plan exits and stairwas for efficient escape from smoke/fire (building > 7 stories, fire exits/stairways must allow two-way traffic for firefighters and people)

Protection of Property

Smoke Management

Reduce injuries, death, and propetry damage though confinement, dilution, and exhaust

Confinement: fire walls and smoke barries (curtain boards)

Dilution: Dilution helps reduce concentration of smoke, not effective for long time periods, and fire produces toxins faster than can be diluted

Exhaust: Use 100% outside air for supply air, exhaust directly to outside, positive pressure in occupied zones, and fire doors and dampers important 

Water for Fire Suppression

Adv: Inexpensive, readily available, and effective

Disadv: steam can burn, ruins building materials, draining, conducts electricity, not as effective on oil fires

Sprinkler Systems

System types: wet pipe, dry pipe, and pre-action

Head types: upright, pendant, and sidewall

Effective: over 90% of fires are stopped, many with just 1 sprinkler head

Savings: Reduce insurance costs and less stringent codes

Extra equipment needed: piping, storage tanks, connections, etc.

Aesthetics

Sprinkler Layout: limits on sprinkler area coverage and separation distance, even distribution, adn all spaces must have at least one sprinkler, typically copper or steel pipes

Cautions: deal with water using sloped floors, drains, and scuppers, etc.

Other Extinguishing Systems

Portable extinguishers, CO2 systems (remove O2), and foam