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APP Exam Study
Everything leading up to exam
242
Political Studies
Undergraduate 3
02/12/2013

Additional Political Studies Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Who were the Federalists?
Definition
They were property owners and Merchants (North). They Feared excessive Democracy. They favored strong national government.
Term
Important Federalists?
Definition
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay.
Term
Who were the Anti-Federalists?
Definition
Small farmers and shop keepers (South). They feared concentrated power of elites and return of monarchy. They also favored strong state governments.
Term
Important Anti-Federalists?
Definition
Patrick Henry and George Mason
Term
Representation of Anti-Federalists
Definition
Representatives must have a deep understanding of the circumstances and desires of their constituents. ("Delegate"). This can only be achieved in small, homogenous republics such as states.
Term
Representation of Federalists
Definition
Representatives are individuals possessing ability, experience, and talent greater than their constituents ("Trustee"). The benefits of representatives democracy over direct democracy.
Term
Source of Tyranny-Anti-Federalists
Definition
Tendency of all governments to become gradually more "aristocratic" in character as the few use their growing power to tyrannize the many. Critical of institutions that were not directly responsible to the people (Senate, President, and Judiciary).
Term
Source of Tyranny-Federalist
Definition
The real danger is the "Tyranny of the Majority" in which a popular majority would trample over the rights of others.
Term
How to Limit Government-Anti-Federalists
Definition
Favored limiting national action to those powers specifically enumerated (as it pertains to its relationship with the states and people). This will prevent the national government from seizing all of the power held in the states and violating the rights of the people.
Term
How to Limit Government-Federalists
Definition
Favored granting national government broad powers that would face internal checks and controls (separation of power). The way to prevent the misuse of power is not to deprive the government of power but to establish controls on it. For this reason, they originally opposed the Bill of Rights as an unnecessary restriction on government power.
Term
Political Parties
Definition
Organized groups that attempt to influence government policy by electing their members to important government offices.
Term
Interest Groups
Definition
Organized group that attempt to influence elected officials and government policy.
Term
Political Parties vs. Interest Groups
Definition
Same goals but different names.
Term
Factions
Definition
Citizens united by common interest, opposed to the rights/interests of other citizens, and/or opposed to the national interests. For example, Political Parties or Interest Groups. Because Political Parties hold formal political power – they are probably a closer fit to the “Faction” definition than Interest Groups.
Term
Problem with Factions
Definition
Instability of government. Disregard for Public Good and Tyranny of the Majority.
Term
Minority Factions
Definition
Overruled by Republican Principles of Majority Rule.
Term
Majority Factions
Definition
Majority rules enables them to pursue private interests at expense of public good and rights of other citizens
Term
Importance of Liberty-Federalists distrusted democracy and equality for what they could do to individual liberty
Definition
Democracy could degenerate into tyranny of majority. Feared that demands from those without property for a “leveling spirit” (economic and social equality) would lead to majority tyranny and infringe individual liberty.
Term
Importance of Liberty-However, liberty may itself lead to greater democracy and equality
Definition
Liberty breeds democratic activity and participation. Liberty offers a chance at greater equality while tyranny always leads to greater inequality.
Term
Source of Faction-The propensity for faction is part of our human nature
Definition
Result of differences of opinion which manifest themselves in formal divisions that predispose groups to oppress each other rather than cooperate. These differences of opinion need not be substantial
Term
Implication – It is our human nature to seek limited cooperation to more fully realize our interests.
Definition
Whether distinctions are substantial or superficial is irrelevant – what is important is that there is a division that will allow us to pursue our private interests over common interests.
Term
Source of Faction-Most common distinction is distribution of property
Definition
Division between the haves and have-nots. Division between creditors and debtors. Division between different property interest
Term
Source of Faction
Definition
These different groups have different opinions and material interests
Term
How do we solve this problem? (Factions)
Definition
(1) Removing the causes of Faction. Destroy liberty or Homogenize public. Neither option would be wise or practical.
(2) Controlling the effects. We cannot count of “enlightened statesmen” to keep biases in check in favor of public good. Solutions lies in a Large Republic
• i.e. In proposed Federal Constitutional framework
• i.e. an institutional solution
Term
Benefits of Republic-Balance
Definition
Too large a constituency means that officials will be unfamiliar with local conditions and interests

Too small a constituency means that officials will be to wedded to these local conditions and interests.

We find happy balance in the distinctions between federal and state governments.
Term
Smaller Republics
Definition
Fewer distinct interest and factions means it is easier to capture majority and act upon those private interests
Term
Larger Republics
Definition
More diverse interest and factions means that it is harder to capture majority and act upon those private interests.
Term
Implications-Madison (in this essay and others) expresses fear of “excessive democracy”
Definition
Republics are preferable to democracies because public passions are mitigated by wise and virtuous representatives.
Term
Implictly
Definition
The public cannot be trusted to govern, we must rely on the American Aristocracy
Term
Implications-Madison is implicitly articulating theory of “Pluralism”
Definition
Existence of diverse and competing interests ensures that no one can dominate (they are forced to negotiate and compromise)

System of checks and balances ensures that local factions cannot oppress the nation.
Term
Our structure of government (strong federal system) has many benefits
Definition
Supports independence, peace, safety, and liberty. Ensures collective and individual happiness
Term
We should self-identify and take pride in being an American above other parochial distinctions.
Definition
We have achieved our liberty and independence because of our unity and common efforts

Aside from these emotional appeals, we also share material interests in maintaining national unity.
i.e. cross-regional trade

Greater means of defending ourselves from external threats
Term
They will argue that it is “us” against “them”
Definition
Political parties seek to gain adherence and one of the easiest way to do that is to “misrepresent the opinions and aims of other districts”
Term
Sectionalism
Definition
We should be wary of those who suggest a real difference in interests between geographic regions. Warns that there will be those that will go to great lengths to obscure these benefits of unity and sew divisions.
Term
Sectionalism-Danger is that our nation cannot be effective or sustainable with these divisions.
Definition
“No alliance, however strict, between the parts can be an adequate substitute.”

This is why our present constitution was such an improvement over the Articles of Confederation
Term
Dangers of Sectionalism
Definition
Sectional interests give rise to faction

These seek to replace the will of the nation with the will of the party

Regardless of how and why they are constituted, they will ultimately enable “unprincipled men to subvert the power of the people” and destroy the liberty which enabled them to reach power in the first place.

i.e. Hitler, Mussolini, Emperor Palpatine…
Term
Dangers of Parties (Generally)
Definition
Party competition necessitates the domination of one faction over the other and a “spirit of revenge”

Those who suffer at the hands of one party in power turn to the protection of an alternative party and devolve absolute power to its individual leader.

In an effort to maintain this absolute power, the leader will destroy the liberty which enabled his elevation and threatens his permanent hold on power.

The result is misery and despotism
Term
Dangers of Parties (Generally)
Definition
Party politics distracts our representative bodies and weakens the execution of the public’s business.

Manufactures false jealousies, threats, animosities

Foments disorder and insurrection

Party politics opens the door to foreign influence and corruption

Different parties have different preferences regarding our foreign relations
Term
Parties as a Check on Government?-Concedes that within certain limits, parties may be a useful check on the administration of government and encourage the spirit of liberty
Definition
This is particularly true of non-democratic governments
Term
Parties as a Check on Government?-But in democratic governments, we must be concerned with the dangers of excess
Definition
“A fire not to be quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent it bursting into a flame, lest instead of warming it should consume.”
Term
Washington seems to be restating the Federalist fear of “Excessive Democracy”
Definition
Liberty is a virtue and is to be cherished – but we must not allow it to go to extremes and sew divisions in the population.

i.e. Parochial interests and liberty must not be allowed to subvert the national interest and liberty.
Term
Dahl-Party Politics
Definition
“Democratic rights incorporated in the Bill of Rights made parties possible; the need to compete effectively made them inevitable; the ability to represent citizens who would otherwise not be adequately represented made them desirable.”
Term
Dahl-Party Politics-Partisan politics transformed the constitution
Definition
Framers did not foresee that in a democratic republic political parties are not only possible, but inevitable and desirable
Term
Dahl-Madison of 1821
Definition
Madison now trusted popular majorities more

Would have advocated to check majority rule less and facilitate it more.

Parties are a natural offspring of freedom

But in combination with broad suffrage may create a conflict over property.

Majority rule is less “imperfect” than minority rule
Term
Dahl-Madison of 1821 “In every political society parties are unavoidable” Their dangers may be overcome by:
Definition
Establishing political equality for all

Withholding unnecessary opportunities from a few to increase the inequality of property by immoderate and unmerited amount.

Silent operation of law which would reduce extreme wealth and poverty (all without violating rights of property)

Abstaining from measures which favor one interest at the expense of another

Making one party a check on another – so existence of parties is not prevented and their views not accommodated.
Term
Problem of Social Choice in Government
Definition
Parties make it possible for government to actually function – for politicians to cooperate
Term
Problem of Collective Action in Voting
Definition
Parties help to make voting “cheaper” for public
Term
Problem of Political Ambition
Definition
Parties help regulate competition for office – ensure that politicians will want to run for office
Term
Problem of Ambition-Parties regulate competition for elected office
Definition
If office is desirable you will have more aspirants for those positions than positions to give out.

Problem is that too much competition limits the ability of ambitious political actors to achieve their goals
Term
Problem of Ambition-Parties help to limit access to that competition
Definition
Create an orderly process by which access to competition is granted (i.e. Nomination)

Create institutional mechanisms that mitigate the dangers of within-party splits (i.e. Support for Party Candidate)

i.e. minimize danger that within-party competition will occur and result in success for opponents.
Term
Duverger’s Law
Definition
Elections decided by plurality or majority rule yield a two-party system. Voters don’t want to waste their votes. Political elites have an interest in reducing competition to just two choices
Term
Probability of election is higher with a party than without
Definition
Party members gain assistance in overcoming the two collective action problems facing electorate.
Term
Higher probability that they will affiliate with a major party rather than a minor party
Definition
Major parties provide a higher probability of access to office now and in the future than minor parties
Term
Problem of Collective Action in Elections-Political parties help defray those costs
Definition
Parties provide brand name which conveys information cheaply

Parties provide economies of scale to get out the vote

i.e. Candidates for different offices work together to get out the vote and defray the individual costs.
Term
Politicians have incentives to help public overcome these collective action problems
Definition
But solutions are expensive
Term
Election requires the support and mobilization of the public.
Definition
Requires an informed public that knows its preferences

Requires a decision to actually vote

How do you get your supporters to vote and contribute to your campaign (money, energy, etc) rather than “Free-Ride”?
Term
Problem of Social Change-Parties help provide a voting majority for specific policy choices and help maintain those majorities over time.
Definition
Parties are enduring institutions who differ in some fundamental ways from one another.

Politicians (and voters ) remain loyal to these parties and the policies and values they emphasize.
Term
Without Parties, individual politicians may have different ranked preferences resulting from their diverse constituency and the will of the public as a whole.
Definition
We are likely to find in-transitive (cyclical) ranked preferences

Majority is not possible.
Term
Problem-Parties help provide a voting majority for specific policy choices and help maintain those majorities over time.
Definition
Parties are enduring institutions who differ in some fundamental ways from one another.

Politicians (and voters ) remain loyal to these parties and the policies and values they emphasize.
Term
Problem of Social Change-Parties are institutions designed to promote the achievement of collective choices
Definition
Parties help ensure that preferences among political actors are transitive and that a majority can be reached and maintained.
Term
Solving this Problem: Median Voter Theorem (Black 1958)
Definition
If voter preferences can be arranged on a single dimension between two alternatives – a majority option is possible
Term
Problem of Social Change: Arrow's Theorem
Definition
Transitive” Ranked preferences

A > B > C

Majority favored outcome is possible

“Intransitive” (Cyclical ) ranked preferences

A > B, B > C, C > A

Majority favored outcome is not possible.

i.e. Plurality elections rather than majority elections
Term
Arrow’s Theorem-Very complicated theory – but in short:
Definition
When voters are faced with more than two alternatives and those alternatives cannot be collectively placed in non-cyclical ranked order – it is impossible to arrive at a majority favored outcome
Term
Arrow's Theorem
Definition
No method of choosing can guarantee that noncyclical social preferences can be obtained from noncyclical individual preferences
Term
Achieve Cooperation – Prior Agreement
Definition
Institutional arrangements that provide a basis for binding commitments (Political Party)

Ensures that one player is not made to be the sucker for cooperating while the other defects.

You will win more over the long haul than if you act independently

You will gain more with a minimal coalition than a universal coalition
Term
Political parties are collections of individuals who act collectedly to provide public goods
Definition
Hence, they face a collective action problem (individually rational decisions result in Pareto inferior outcomes – Fail to Cooperate)
Term
Mancur Olson
Definition
“Logic of Collective Action”
Term
Problem of Collective Action: Olson-It is in your individual self-interest to attain the public good, but not to pay for it.
Definition
Public goods – “Jointness of supply” and “non-excludability”

Everybody assumes that someone else will pay for it and that they can “Free-Ride”

Eventually, nobody pays and the good is not produced.

Everyone loses (“Pareto Inferior” Outcome)

This becomes a bigger problem as the groups size increases.

Can be overcome by either Compulsion or providing Selective Incentives
Term
Aldrich-In Sum
Definition
“A series of problems that necessarily arise in elections and in governance make it possible for politicians to win more of what they seek to win, more often, and over a longer period by creating parties.” (28)

“The historical context determines when, and in what form, these theoretical possibilities actually arise” (28)
Term
Aldrich-History Context Matters-Technological Changes
Definition
Today, politicians can run a campaign without party support if necessary
Term
Aldrich-History Context Matters-Values and Ideas (“Civil Religious Eras”)
Definition
Parties and politicians are forced to operate within the cultural context of what is deemed appropriate at a given time.
Term
Aldrich-History Context Matters-Institutional “Path Dependency”
Definition
“Critical Juncture” – Choice between alternatives

Once choice is made, it becomes more difficult to reverse course and deviate from equilibrium.

i.e. Two Party System – minimizes incentives to form a third party
Term
Technological Changes, Values and Ideas, and Institutional "Path Dependency"
Definition
These historical contexts determines when, and in what form, parties emerge to enhance the goals of political actors
Term
Parties are designed to solve problems that other institutional arrangements are incapable of resolving
Definition
Politicians believe that these problems cannot be solved by any other means.

Politicians believe that these problems will adversely affect their chance of winning office
Term
Parties are utilized if they further those goals
Definition
i.e. Politicians may distance themselves from the party when that party is currently unpopular

(Republicans during the 2008 General Elections)

i.e. Politicians may align themselves with the party when it is currently popular

(Republicans during 2002 Mid-term Elections)
Term
Parties are a vehicle by which politicians may achieve a variety of goals
Definition
Fenno (1973) – Career, policy, power, prestige, etc.
Term
Political Parties are not created by the people or those outside the system
Definition
They are created by those within (“Endogenous”)
Term
“Creature of the politicians, the ambitious office seeker and officeholder.”
Definition
“They have created and maintained, used or abused, reformed or ignored the political party when doing so has furthered their goals and ambitions.”
Term
Health of party system is judged according to the competitiveness of the two parties
Definition
Strong Party System – 1990s – Present

Weak Party System – Reconstruction, New Deal
Term
Political party is a vehicle used to win elections
Definition
They formulate policies to help win elections (rather than the other way around)

In a competitive party system, politicians and parties find it in their rational self-interest to be responsive to the public
Term
Actors are utility maximizers who adopt the most appropriate strategy to achieve goals (Rational Choice)
Definition
Primary goal is to win elections

All other goals are secondary because they cannot be achieved while out of office.
Term
“Umbrella Group”
Definition
Coalition of diverse members articulating a message that will appeal to majority of voters
Term
Party diversity ensures moderation and compromise
Definition
i.e. New Deal Coalition

i.e. Republican Coalition of economic and social conservatives.
Term
Both parties are united by fundamental values (“American Creed” or “Civil Religion”)
Definition
However, they differ in relative emphasis for these values and the means (policy) of achieving them.

i.e. Liberty and Equality (of opportunity)
Term
Responsible Party - Schattschneider - Not what parties are but rather what they should be (ideal type)
Definition
Make policy commitments to voters and work to achieve them (in and out of office)

Two parties differ sufficiently to provide a real choice to the electorate
Term
Responsible Party - Schattschneider - Is this desirable or realistic?
Definition
More akin to Parliamentary Government

Because of “parliamentary supremacy”

Public may desire moderation rather than two stark choices

And…did we not create our institutions specifically to
Term
E.E. Schattschneider (1942) – “Political parties created democracy, and…democracy is unthinkable save in terms of parties.”
Definition
All democracies have political parties
Term
Individual representatives are held accountable for their actions by their constituency
Definition
But government policy is the result of the collective actions of the entire congress – How do we ensure accountability at that level?
Term
Political Parties are a vehicle by which we may establish accountability for collective action
Definition
Punish the party at the polls
Term
Problem of Collective Action Within
Government (Social Choice)-Political parties are collections of individuals who act collectedly to provide public goods
Definition
Hence, they face a collective action problem (individually
rational decisions result in Pareto inferior outcomes – Fail to
Cooperate)
Term
Problem of Collective Action Within
Government (Social Choice)-Two Solutions
Definition
(1) Agree to Cooperate during Action (i.e. Vote-Trading)
Problem – “Folk Theorem” – There is no guarantee that cooperation will continue to occur

(creates uncertainty)(No Trust)

(2) Agree to Cooperate ahead of time

Create Institutional arrangements that provide a basis for
binding commitments (Political Party)

Ensures that one player is not made to be the sucker for
cooperating while the other defects (Creates Trust)

You will win more over the long haul than if you act
independently
Term
Problem of Social Choice-Parties help provide a voting majority for specific policy choices and help maintain those majorities over time.
Definition
Parties are enduring institutions who differ in some fundamental ways from one another.

Politicians (and voters ) remain loyal to these parties and the policies and values they emphasize.
Term
Problem of Social Choice-Parties are institutions designed to promote the achievement of collective choices
Definition
Without Parties, individual politicians may have different ranked preferences resulting from their diverse constituency and the will of the public as a whole.

We are likely to find in-transitive (cyclical) ranked preferences
•Majority is not possible.

Parties help ensure that preferences among political actors are transitive and that a majority can be reached and maintained.
Term
Three Major Issues
Definition
Location of the Capital, Hamilton’s (Treasury Secretary) Fiscal Plan, and "Great Principle"
Term
"Great Principle"
Definition
How strong and active should our federal government be?

Last great unresolved constitutional question
Term
Hamilton’s (Treasury Secretary) Fiscal Plan
Definition
Should national government assume state debts from Revolutionary War?
Term
Location of the Capital
Definition
Symbolic, Economic, and Political Ramifications

North or South?
Term
The origins of our first political parties emerged in an effort to resolve these conflicts
Definition
Rather than engaging in individual vote-trading and compromise, leaders sought to organize supporters
Term
"Great Principle"-Resolution required policy outcomes that would illustrate the character of government
Definition
Fundamental division between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
Term
"Great Principle"-The strength and reach of the federal government was left ambiguous in the constitution (perhaps purposely so)
Definition
Political elites would have had preferences on the resolution of the Great Principle

Political elites would have also had preferences regarding the specific policy outcomes adopted

These outcomes set precedent for the Great Principle
Term
"Great Principle"-These two sets of preferences would not necessarily line up with one another
Definition
i.e. could favor weak national government but vote for policy that would use strong government to benefit your parochial interests

Therefore – Median Voter Theory cannot be utilized

The conflict is multi-dimensional
Term
Social Choice Problem-Instability of temporary majority coalitions made it difficult to resolve individual issues along with the “Great Principle”
Definition
Any compromise or vote trade meant that neither side got its most preferred outcome

It also meant uncertainty about the long-term consistency and clarity of principle
Term
Social Choice Problem-Leaders sought an institutional means to circumvent this social choice problem
Definition
Institutions would allow for resolution of these conflicts and overcome instability of majority rule

Provide constraints and incentives such that members found it in their interests to vote according to great principle rather than on individual policy preferences.
Term
Opposing Forces-In an effort to win policy victories consistently and establish undeniable precedents on the great principle, two groups emerge
Definition
Federalists and Jefferonian Republicans
Term
Federalists
Definition
Hamilton and Adams

Favored Northern Capital, Assumption of Revolutionary War Debt and Stronger National Government

Favored closer ties with Britain
Term
Jeffersonian Republicans
Definition
Jefferson and Madison

Favored Southern Capital, No Assumption of War Debt, and Weaker National Government

Favored closer ties with France
Term
Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans were not parties as understood today
Definition
Similar to “Party-In-Government”

i.e. Organizing Politicians to achieve a common set of policy goals
Term
2nd Congress-“Federalists” emerged first behind their informal leader and spokesmen Hamilton
Definition
He was able to create consistent voting majorities that allowed them to shape the outcome of the “Great Principle” Debate
Term
2nd Congress-“Jeffersonian Republicans” realized that they needed to organize an opposition in response.
Definition
They won the capital debate and temporary victory on assumption of debt…but were losing the most important battle on the Great Principle
Term
3rd Congress-Political parties had come into existence
Definition
Politicians were divided into two recognizable alliances which cut across geographic divisions

Partisan interests could be found in nearly all legislation under consideration

Began to develop electoral strategies and partisan newspapers
Term
3rd Congress
Definition
This organization provided incentives to keep politicians voting on the party line
Term
Testing this Theory-Votes on issues important to development of parties should be different before and after the emergence of these parties
Definition
Examined roll call voting in the House

Party affiliation should be related to great principle dimension

Party voting should increase in the latter congress

Found tentative evidence for these hypotheses
Term
Party organizations helped induce members to vote according to great principle rather than other considerations.
Definition
Conflict became one-dimensional which created opportunity to overcome social choice problems. (i.e. Median Voter)
Term
"Mass-Based Parties"
Definition
Engaged the voting masses (at all levels) to secure victories on election day

Still functioned as a “Party-In-Government” but now primarily focused on appropriating the “spoils of office” to ensure continued electoral support.
i.e. Machine Politics
Term
_______ Party was the first national, mass-based party in history
Definition
Democractic, 1828 was the birth of party politics
Term
Mass Party-Previously, Parties functioned almost entirely as “Parties-In-Government”
Definition
They organized members to achieve policy goals

Tool of “Natural Aristocracy” to realize prized principles

They only modestly engaged in electoral politics
Term
War of 1812
Definition
"Federalists” favored closer ties to the British and after the war the party could not be sustained.
Term
Founding Era
Definition
“Federalist” and “Jeffersonian Republicans”

“Federalists” were the first to organize, but soon began to consistently lose elections following the emergence of “Jeffersonian Republicans”
Term
Founders of the Democratic Party
Definition
Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren
Term
Andrew Jackson
Definition
Military hero of War of 1812

Won plurality of popular vote in 1824 but lost in the electoral college
Term
Martin Van Buren
Definition
Mobilized elite support and resources for Jackson’s presidential run in 1828

Resources were used to create new electoral organization

Electoral victories would provide spoils of office for supporters.
Term
_______ won presidency in 1828 on the back of a 20% increase in vote turnout.
Definition
Jackson
Term
Most choose to “free-ride” rather than vote
Definition
Individual impact is limited and benefits of outcomes are public goods.

Decision to vote largely becomes a function of the intrinsic benefits derived from voting minus the costs.
Term
Political Parties lower the costs
Definition
Logistic-Transportation to polling sites, information on how to register and vote, etc.

Decision Making-Speeches and rallies helped a largely illiterate population become informed about the issues and candidates
Term
Political Parties increase the intrinsic benefits
Definition
Political campaigns and events were cheap entertainment and generated enthusiasm.

Benefits derived from being identified as a party supporter
Social, Political, and Economic
Term
How do we explain the 1828 turnout-1824 Election – 26.5%...1828 Election – 56.3%
Definition
Heightened interest in presidential politics

Increased competitiveness of parties in many states

Increased structuring of parties
Term
How do we explain the 1828 turnout-Turnout increased because parties were now competitive in more states
Definition
Increased interest in the competition

Increased sense that individual votes matter

Increased effort by parties to attract voters
Term
Mass-Based Parties: Why 1828?-Technological Advances
Definition
Improved transportation and communication
Term
Mass-Based Parties: Why 1828?-Presidential Suffrage
Definition
90% of states used popular voting to choose electoral college

rather than electors being chosen by state legislature
Term
Why Jackson (1828 Election)-He was a war hero and thus incredibly popular
Definition
Those running for office under the same party label would benefit electorally

i.e. selective incentives
Term
Why Jackson (1828 Election)-He lacked any real political platform
Definition
Democratic Party would be held together by the loose principles generally articulated by the Jeffersonian Republicans during their founding.

Political Actors from across sectional cleavages could join together without fear that a party platform would constrain their actions

Ambiguity meant that you could campaign for whatever policies served you best among your own constituency
i.e. reducing the costs of participating in collective action
Term
"National Alliance"-Electoral coalition of various factions opposed to the incumbent Adam’s administration
Definition
Northern Radicals (Van Buren) and Southern Interests (Jackson-Calhoun)

Revival of original Jeffersonian-Republican alliance
Term
"National Alliance"-Both stood to gain from winning office
Definition
Southern interests faced little risk to their own electoral prospects by joining this alliance
Term
Prior Collective Action Problem-Parties can solve the collective action problem of mobilizing the electorate
Definition
But…they first have to solve the collective action problem of getting political actors to join the party and commit the necessary resources

Office seekers and holder
Benefit seekers who have the resources
Term
The "Caucus"-Organizational arm of this alliance
Definition
Raised revenues and coordinated electoral mobilization efforts
Term
The "Caucus"- Three Points
Definition
Takes time to build state-level organizations

Requires extensive resources which meant that high level benefit seekers had a critical influence in shaping policy

Resources were allocated according to “Strategic Parties Hypothesis”
Term
The "Caucus" - The Results
Definition
Organized in states expected to be the most competitive

State organizations already existed to some degree

Potential benefits were large – thus increasing the stakes
Term
Strategic Parties Hypothesis
Definition
Studies show that turnout tends to be highest in the closest elections – and it is at least partially attributable to the resources expended by parties
Term
Strategic Parties Hypothesis-Relatively small per capita costs add up to substantial sums in large campaigns
Definition
Party can limit these costs by being strategic about where they invest their resources
i.e. Where resources will make a difference

Tight race rather than landslides one way or the other
Term
According to “Strategic Party Hypothesis”, organizational efforts were directed at non-alliance states that were competitive
Definition
Results were massive increases in turnout and ultimate electoral victory for the Democrats
Term
Organizing State Democratic Parties-Many state level party/faction organizations already existed.
Definition
–Democratic leaders sought to minimize the collective action costs of creating state level organizations by combining (co-opting) what existed with their own vision
–Party selectively choose which organizations were ripe for these efforts
•i.e. which organizations had leaders, principles,
Term
Expectations of Model-Coalition is large enough to win electoral vote majority
Definition
Base of coalition are those states where support for Jackson was expected

States that he carried in 1824 election

Expanding to other competitive states as needed
Term
Expectations of Model-Composed of:
Definition
Those who either already supported Jackson or opposed Adams

Those who stood to benefit from the election of Jackson

i.e. Members of the Alliance and Caucus
Term
End of the Whigs
Definition
Democrats became divided over sectional issues

Slavery became the defining issue

New Party System would divide North and South

Culminating in Civil War
Term
2nd Party System was Competitive
Definition
Democrats and Whigs

Both were intersectional alliances

Divided on economic lines

Parties kept slavery from becoming a defining issue
Term
Van Buren recognized that an intersectional alliance was a normative good.
Definition
Ensured that parties sought policy in the common interest rather than individual or sectional interest

Understood that slavery would be a nationally divisive issue that could tear country apart and this alliance would keep it from getting on the agenda

Both Parties understood this and took steps to maintain their alliances
Term
How to Keep Slavery Off the Agenda-South was perpetually in minority status
Definition
Perpetual threat that non-slave majority could limit or terminate the practice.

To prevent breakdown of intersectional alliance, the South would need some assurances
Term
How to Keep Slavery Off the Agenda-Institutional Balance
Definition
South was given an effective and credible veto in the Senate (“Balance Rule”)

South was given a symbolic commitment and potential veto in the executive branch (“Balanced Tickets”)
Term
"Balance Rule"
Definition
Variety of ad hoc legislative compromises ensured that there was a rough balance between the number of free and slave states

Resulted in Southern Senatorial Veto

Effective but not certain

Required unity of Southern Senators

Required support from either the Vice President or President

Vice-President could break tie in Senate

(Veto House Actions)

President could veto legislation all together
Term
To ensure veto potential, both parties presented voters with balanced tickets
Definition
i.e. Northern and Southern Politicians running for President and Vice-President
Term
"Balanced Tickets"-This was not a “Guarantee” of a veto – but rather a symbolic affirmation of the commitments to intersectional alliances and moderation
Definition
Republican Party broke this trend with a non-southern ticket in 1856 and 1860

Lincoln returned to balanced ticket in 1864 (Andrew Johnson)
Term
National Convention made up of representatives proportional to a state’s electoral votes
Definition
As in the electoral college – South was well represented but remained in the minority
Term
Nomination rules required a 2/3 majority vote
Definition
Both North and South could veto

Ensured that no pro-slave or anti-slave extremists could be nominated
Term
Institutionalized Balanced Tickets (Democrats)-However, because this was a party rule, it could be changed at any convention
Definition
There was no credible commitment to permanently maintain this balance
Term
Whig Dilemma-By 1852, the Whigs were steadily losing and expected to continue losing elections
Definition
Internally, Whig Party was becoming increasingly divided along sectional issues

Compromises on slavery related issues were dividing the Whigs intersectional alliance more than Democrats

Economic issues were no longer the most salient issues despite the fact that is remained the primary distinction between the two parties

Whigs could not hope to win on economic issues alone

These were also becoming increasingly sectional

Slavery, Nativism, and Temperance were salient

These were sectional issues that would further divide the Whigs and lead to their certain demise.

These were not national issues
Term
Whigs had two options to oppose Democrats
Definition
Organize opposition to slavery

Would utterly divide their inter-sectional coalition

Lose the South – Gain Midwest – Ambivalent in Northeast where slavery was not a salient issue

Organize in favor of Nativism

Could find intersectional support but policy proposals were more local than national – thus failing to offer a national policy issue to rally around.
Term
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)-The Whig alliance was more vulnerable
Definition
Since they were out of power, they could not offer other policy benefits to northern members to pacify them. (i.e. Pork)

They lacked any other national issue to unify their party
Term
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)-Residents in new territories would decide for themselves whether they would be free or slave (Proposed by Democrats)
Definition
Pro-slavery elements favored by Southerners of both parties, but principle of popular sovereignty was moderate enough to maintain Democratic intersectional alliance
Term
Whigs had two options to oppose Democrats
Definition
Organize opposition to slavery

Would utterly divide their inter-sectional coalition

Lose the South – Gain Midwest – Ambivalent in Northeast where slavery was not a salient issue

Organize in favor of Nativism

Could find intersectional support but policy proposals were more local than national – thus failing to offer a national policy issue to rally around.
Term
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)-The Whig alliance was more vulnerable
Definition
Since they were out of power, they could not offer other policy benefits to northern members to pacify them. (i.e. Pork)

They lacked any other national issue to unify their party
Term
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)-Residents in new territories would decide for themselves whether they would be free or slave (Proposed by Democrats)
Definition
Pro-slavery elements favored by Southerners of both parties, but principle of popular sovereignty was moderate enough to maintain Democratic intersectional alliance
Term
Ambition Theory
Definition
With declining success of Whigs, ambitious politicians now faced a real considered choice regarding which party to affiliate with

(Analytically focused on Mid-level party members)

Do you stay a Whig or turn to a third party?

If so, which one? And Why?
Term
Pure Office-Seeker
Definition
Seeks power not policy

No inherent preference for one party or the other

Party Choice is a calculation of the costs, risks, and probabilities of success in seeking office as a member of one party or the other.

Ambitious Politician will run for office as a member of whatever party offered the most probable access to office
Term
Ambitious politicians may choose to run with a party with a more attractive platform regardless of electoral prospects
Definition
Value of making a principled stand

i.e. anti-slavery advocates running as Liberty or Free Soil candidates
Term
Ambitious politicians may choose to run with a party that has a credible chance of becoming a major party
Definition
Major parties offer a higher probability of being able to enact policy

But this decision is also influenced by the probability that others in the party will also win their elections.

In 2nd party system – This was between Democrats and Whigs

In beginning of 3rd party system

This was between Democrats and a number of alternatives (Whigs, Republicans, American)
Term
Republican or American? Which party stood the best chance of becoming a major party (and thus allowing one to implement policy)?
Definition
Which party’s platform was most attractive to local constituency?

Anti-slavery sentiment stronger in Northwest

Nativism sentiment stronger in Northeast

Which party would attract and be successful in electing other ambitious politicians

i.e. Which party platform could be successfully utilized by enough politicians to become a major party?

i.e. Which party had enough national appeal to become a majority?
Term
Republican Party
Definition
Initial strength at congressional level in the Northwest (where slavery was primary issue)

Nativism was a weak issue, so choice was between becoming a Republican or remaining a Whig/Democrat

i.e. campaigning on issue of slavery or not
Term
American Party
Definition
Strong third party status in Northeast where Nativist sentiment was high

Slavery was a weak issue, so choice was between becoming a American or remaining a Whig (Democrats were happy)

i.e. campaigning on issues of Nativism or not

Also – whether you were sufficiently disaffected with Whigs following Kansas-Nebraska Act
Term
Whig Party was already weaker in Northwest
Definition
Anti-Kansas-Nebraska Act sentiment was more salient in Northwest
Term
Decision between Whigs and Republicans
Definition
Nativism was less relevant (less immigration)
Term
Rapid Republican Growth in Northwest-Decision was Easy to Make
Definition
Midlevel ambitious politicians evaluate whether to stick with declining party or join the only other party that could be viable in the region
Term
The choice between these two alternatives was more complex in Northeast than Northwest
Definition
Coordination problem that would require active leadership (Senators and Governors)

This active leadership was not necessary in Northwest where decision was easy to make
Term
Republican and American Parties were potential alternatives for those defecting from Whigs
Definition
Republican party could hope for Northern Alliance

Could you beat American and Whig competitors in Northeast?

Could Republican Northern Alliance defeat Democrat intersectional alliance?

American party could hope for North-South Alliance

Greater prospects of winning northeast
Term
Southern appeal of Whig Party
Definition
Reasonable to believe that Whigs had long term potential to remain a major party

i.e. could recover from recent electoral failures
Term
Slow Republican Growth in Northeast-Whig Party was stronger
Definition
Anti-slavery sentiment exacerbated by Kansas-Nebraska Compromise was not as pronounced

Anti-slavery was still an issue but not as much as in northwest
Term
To become a major party, you need to able to win nationally
Definition
i.e. Presidency or control of congress
Term
Anti-slavery Republicans could not hope to gain support in the south
Definition
They had to win nationally based on the numerical majority held by north over the south

Not enough to merely compete with Democrats in North – they had to dominate the North to beat Democrats nationally
Term
To win the North, they also had to defeat the American Party running on a platform of Nativism
Definition
Solution – Platform combining Anti-slavery with Nativism but with leadership drawn from and emphasis towards the former.
Term
Party was anti-slavery but not abolitionist
Definition
Sought to limit slavery's expansion

South a broad coalition that would allow them to be major party
Term
Federalist 10 (Madison)
Definition
Organized interests (“Factions”) are not desirable, but inevitable…how do we limit the negatives?

Large republic where parochial factions are forced to moderate, compromise, and consolidate with one another to gain majority support
Term
Pluralism
Definition
No single interest/faction can permanently dominate society

Those interests they ignore will be represented by their competitors

Success requires that each faction create a broad and inclusive coalition (which itself requires moderation)
Term
Washington's Farewell Address
Definition
The most dangerous manifestation of factions is “Sectionalism”

i.e. Competition among regional factions

Destroys national unity and inspires revenge politics

How do we limit this?
Term
Van Buren's Mass Party
Definition
Intersectional alliances organized around broad principles that focus on national rather than regional issues.

Institutional mechanisms that maintain this alliance and preclude discussion of the most divisive sectional issues

i.e. Balance Rule and Balanced Tickets
Term
Challenging Assumptions (Pluralism)- Assumed that party competition ensures the representation of a variety of groups
Definition
Search for electoral majority incentivizes a more inclusive and moderate politics
Term
Challenging Assumptions (Pluralism)- Frymer – This ignores the electoral incentive to “capture” and ignore marginalized groups
Definition
Focus is on African-Americans, but this concept can be applied to others as well.

This occurs even when party competition is strong

i.e. when the incentive to incorporate minority interests should be strongest…because incorporation has potential to be a decisive factor in a close election
Term
Racial cleavages are often treated as an irrational and exceptional feature of politics
Definition
It defies assumptions of rational decision making

But…this ignores the fact that our institutions and political practices are predicated on racial divisions.
Term
Two-Party system emerged (in part) as an effort to create broad coalitions that could avoid dealing with the divisive issue of slavery
Definition
Effectively excluding black interests from politics
Term
Winner-Take-All (First-Past-The-Post) electoral structures encourage the promotion of policies which appeal to the majority
Definition
If voter preferences can be reduced to a single-dimension (i.e. liberal vs. conservative) then parties can most effectively achieve a plurality by appealing to the median voter

In the process parties minimize their differences but remain distinct in an effort to hold onto their electoral base at the more extreme ends of the spectrum.
Term
Median Voter-Assume that primary goal of political actors is to get elected (and goal of political parties is to get their members elected). (Downs, 1957)
Definition
Policy platforms and ideology is a means to an end
Term
Assumptions of Median Voter Model
Definition
Median voter model predicated on assumption of a single-dimension

Voters are divided according to preferences regarding role of government in economy (Racial issues are not an explicit aspect of the electoral conflict)

Assumed that African-Americans are merely a subgroup of a larger coalition of ideologically liberal voters

Their inclusion in politics actually moves the national median over to the liberal direction
Term
Invalid Assumption-However, when race does become a salient issues in an election, the distribution of voters is likely very different
Definition
Most whites fall on the conservative end

Most blacks fall on the liberal end
Term
Because whites are a numerical majority, the more effective electoral strategy is to reach out to the white median voter
Definition
At the expense of the black vote.
Term
Sectional conflict over slavery had split the Jeffersonian-Republicans into various factions
Definition
The philosophical principles (decentralized political power) that had largely united these factions had given way to divergent policy preferences
Term
Van Buren sought to create an electoral coalition that could reunite these factions under these principles by avoiding the issue of slavery
Definition
Party identity would replace sectional identity

Party could control which issues would be addressed
Term
Andrew Jackson was a unifying candidate
Definition
Very popular war hero

Ambiguous policy positions
Term
“Take our popular leader and no controversial policies. We will provide resources to you, so long as you agree to call yourself Democrats. For your part, you can continue to hold to your current policy positions.”
Definition
Whigs eventually adopted a similar strategy of cross-sectional coalition building and moderation

Political parties became a means of preventing the factionalism that was so feared by our founders.
Term
Democrats vs. Whigs (1828-1850s)
Definition
Race (Slavery) kept off the agenda
Term
Whig Collapse
Definition
Slavery replaced economics as the most pressing issue for the public and began to split the parties

Democrats were in power and could keep their coalition together through spoils system

Whigs were out of power and could not.
Term
Republicans emerge by appealing to those interests that were ignored
Definition
Slavery and Nativism

i.e. Exactly what Pluralist theory predicts
Term
Post-Civil War Radical Republicans
Definition
Believed that bringing Freed Slaves into their coalition would provide them with a majority

Combination of Federal protection of “Freedmen” and disenfranchisement of Confederates created one-party rule (i.e. weak party competition)
Term
Median voter appeared to shift left and radical racial policies were enacted to reflect that.
Definition
Similar to what happened in the Civil Rights era
Term
Median Voter didn’t really shift left…
Definition
Changing the dominant issue to Race did the opposite

Race could now be used as a divisive wedge by the minority party (Democrats) to break apart the majority coalition (Republicans)
Term
Republicans realized that liberal racial agenda is the cause of their fall from dominance
Definition
Similar to what happened in the post-civil rights era.
Term
Prospect Theory
Definition
Where outcomes are uncertain, individuals will more heavily weigh the potential for losses than gains.
Term
Party leaders have become Risk-Averse
Definition
Party leaders have learned that they are better off appealing to white median voter and avoiding potentially volatile racial policy proposals
Term
It is only during periods of one-party rule that liberal racial policy has been possible
Definition
i.e. Reconstruction and Civil Rights Era

Complete contradiction of Pluralist Assumptions
Term
Shifting Median Voter-During and After Civil War
Definition
Republicans capitalized on New Median on Pre-Racial Dimension

Promoted Black Interests

Democratic party reacted to this by appealing to those disaffected with those policies (i.e. White Republicans who were conservative on racial issues)

Median voter shifted to Post-Racial Dimension
Term
Electoral Capture-Party leaders can therefore ignore the interests of this minority group
Definition
Can assume that most will not abstain from voting

Can assume that most will not support a third-party candidate for fear of “wasting their vote”

Can assume that previous support of their interests will result in more positive evaluation than other party which opposed interests

Can therefore assume that they will continue to support the party as the lesser of two evils.
Term
Electoral Capture-Marginal Group has no real choice but to remain a constituent member of one political party.
Definition
The opposing party does not want them

They therefore cannot threaten their own party with defection
Term
Why would opposing party not want this minority group?-Believe that the inclusion of this group in their coalition and advocacy of their interests as part of the platform will alienate their existing members who can then defect to other side
Definition
Parties seek to appeal to as many groups as necessary to achieve electoral victory but no more

Will not reach out to a group of voters if their numbers are less than what would be lost as a result of this inclusion.
Term
Opposing party would prefer to maintain electoral conflict centered on racial divisions
Definition
They are able to divide the opposition on this issue
Term
“Support from black voters is not perceived by strategic actors as merely an addition to a party’s existing electoral count, but as an entire alteration of the makeup of both parties’ coalitions”
Definition
Primacy of white swing voters’ perceived hostility to black interests creates a power imbalance

Black political leaders wield less influence than other groups with similar characteristics

i.e. size, finances, geographic concentration, ideology, etc.
Term
Despite our Pluralist assumptions that party competition leads to representation of all societal interests – the reality is that blacks are not represented
Definition
No party is competing for their vote

In many cases, both parties advocate policies that operate to their detriment
Term
Intersectional alliances of 2nd party system were predicated on ability to keep slavery off the agenda
Definition
Republican Party sought a north-east/north-west alliance that championed the interests of abolitionists and civil rights advocates (along with Nativist sentiments)
Term
Election of Lincoln led to Civil War
Definition
Ticket was not balanced (No veto in Executive)

Many southern congressmen refused the position after Lincoln’s election (No veto in Congress)
Term
Immediate Post-Civil War-Party Competition was virtually non-existent
Definition
Democratic Party could not compete in the north because of its association with the confederacy

Democratic Party in the south either did not participate in electoral politics or could not as punishment for rebellion

Republican Party dominated

“Radical Republicans” led the party
Term
Andrew Johnson was Lincoln’s running mate in his second election
Definition
Lincoln’s strongest supporters were “Radical Republicans” who saw the advocacy of Black civil and political rights as a winning strategy

Johnson was a southerner selected to even out the ticket
Term
After Civil War
Definition
Radical Republicans pushed Reconstruction programs to protect blacks and institute a powerful electoral presence in the south

Johnson pushed back with more conciliatory policies towards the confederacy and attempts to undermine these policies.
Term
Late 1860s-Republicans began losing elections in the North and this was blamed on Radical Republican Reconstruction Strategy
Definition
Conservative Republicans argued that reconstruction prevented the party from forging an cross-sectional coalition with white southerners

Conservative Republicans also feared that Radicals would push for black suffrage and equal rights in the North

This would alienate white supporters in the North
Term
Radical Republicans began losing influence
Definition
Conservative wing nominated Ulysses Grant (1868)

War Hero

Moderate on Reconstruction Policies (appeal to southern whites)

Northern Black Suffrage should be a decision made by states – not federal government (appeal to northern whites)

Barely won popular vote
Term
Politics of the 15th Amendment-Black Suffrage (Ratified 1870)
Definition

Grant barely won election

Conservatives argued for appeasement of southern whites and easing reconstruction
Radicals called for passage of 15th amendment

To take the “negro question forever out of national politics”

Democrats were making gains because race remained a salient issue

Passage of 15th Amendment would settle the racial question and hopefully make it a less salient issue in the future
Term
Enforcement Act (1871)
Definition
President could use federal troops and courts to prosecute those who infringed on black voting

Grant was reluctant to use force and left the matter up to individual states.
Term
Democrats were elected in many southern states in the late 1860s
Definition
Refused to enforce suffrage laws

KKK intimidated black voters and white sympathizers

Led to further Democratic gains in the region
Term
Republicans were split on a variety of non-race related issues
Definition
i.e. Tariffs, Civil Service Reform
Term
Internal debate on Race and the South
Definition
Northeast “Liberals” sought reconciliation with the South and literacy tests

Let south deal with violence against blacks

Radicals sought stronger protections for blacks

Nationwide and in the south (i.e. send in federal troops)
Term
Grant took a moderate route
Definition
Party continued to face loses in North and South
Term
Tilden-Hayes Compromise (1877)-Dispute over winner of 1876 Election
Definition
Rutherford Hayes (R) and Samuel Tilden (D)

Hayes led by 1 vote in electoral college but there were charges of fraud
Term
Democrats agreed to accept Hayes as President in exchange (informally) for the end of Reconstruction in the South
Definition
Republicans hoped that they could now compete with democrats on economic rather than race issues

End of Reconstruction ensured that black political rights would be violated

Ensured that Democrats would now dominate (1-party system)

Ensured that Jim Crow would be institutionalized
Term
Throughout late 1870s Republicans continued to leave the south alone despite reports of racial violence and disenfranchisement
Definition
Attempt to appease whites and white southerners
Term
Grant and Hayes sought to forge ties with moderate republican, democrat and independent movements in the south that distinguished themselves from black voting coalitions.
Definition
Effort to remove race as an electoral issue and replace it with economic differences among the parties
Term
Southern State-Level Politics-Provides an overview of a internally divided Republican Party at the state level in the south
Definition
Radicals and Conservatives
Term
Southern State-Level Politics-Democrats achieved electoral dominance
Definition
Violence and racism played a role

So too did Republican failures to enter into coalitions with Black Republicans

Product of both racism and electoral strategy
Term
Southern State-Level Politics-Black Republicans were unable to join in coalitions and received scant support from national party structure.
Definition
Left disempowered to fight against democratic party abuses in the region.
Term
Grant through Arthur-4 Consecutive Republican Presidents in Post Civil War Period (1869-1885)
Definition
Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur

All sought to attract white southern democrats

All minimized associations with Blacks

All supported independent movements in the south (i.e. essentially white republicans)

These movements often lost elections to democrats

But they prevented the party from having to either support or protect black republicans

Helped to maintain their northern coalition
Term
1896-1923-Republican Party returned to dominance
Definition
Democrats were internally divided

Panics and Populist Movement (Next Week)

Largely Northern Republican Coalition

Won with little support from southern blacks or whites
Term
1896-1923-Republicans did not pursue Black interests with this new majority
Definition
Blacks were captured in the north and disenfranchised in the south

Although they faced limited competition, they feared the result of activating race as an issue

Happy that the economy was now the dominant issue.
Term
Even when Republicans believed they needed Southern electoral votes (1870s and 1880s) – they promoted policies that went against black interests
Definition
i.e. failed to produce stronger enforcement of voting and civil rights

So long as status of blacks is a primary issue in campaign, the party representing them feels obligated to appeal to racially conservatives whites to win elections.
Term
“Radical Republicans” pushed for various civil and political rights for blacks immediately following Civil War (13, 14, 15 Amendments) for both moral and strategic reasons
Definition
Late 1860s – Republicans began losing in the North and this was attributed to the Radical Republican Program.

Eventually, the Radicals lost out to the more pragmatic wing of the party.
Term
Southern Republicans marginalized black interests in an effort to win local elections.
Definition
White and black republicans divided over strategy

Many whites believed they could not win with a coalition of black voters and left the party to run as independents

These independents were often supported by national republican party when they ran against black coalitions
Term
Even when Republicans no longer needed southern votes (late 1890s) they continued to pursue white voters in the region.
Definition
Race disappeared from national electoral politics
Term
Black Electoral Marginalization was the result of a lack of party competition in the South.
Definition
Frymer – Marginalization is a result of electoral capture; not lack of competition
Term
V.O. Keys-Rational-Choice Electoral and Party Theories
Definition
Party competition ensures that there is a clear choice for voters

This ensures accountability

Ensures that voters will be mobilized

Party competition forces parties to represent all interests in an effort to win majority
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