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ap psych review
review for final exam
168
Psychology
12th Grade
12/17/2012

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Term
acetylcholine
Definition
a neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, and muscle movement
Term
acquisition
Definition
a process in classical conditioning by which the association of a neutral stimulus with a natural stimulus is first established
Term
action potential
Definition
the electrical process by which information is transmitted the length of an axon
Term
activation synthesis
Definition
the idea that dreams are the result of the cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing random flashes of brain activity, originating in the lower brain structures, especially the pons
Term
adrenal gland
Definition
source of the hormone norepinephrine which affects arousal
Term
agonists
Definition
drugs which mimic the activity of neurotransmitters
Term
alcohol
Definition
the most frequently used and abused CNS depressant in most cultures; its use affects mood, judgment, cognition
Term
alpha waves
Definition
seen when an individual is in a relaxed, unfocused, yet still awake state
Term
amygdala
Definition
limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger
Term
anorexia
Definition
an eating disorder in which one starves oneself even though significantly underweight
Term
antagonist
Definition
drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters
Term
anvil
Definition
condition in which the sympathetic nervous system is in control
Term
aphasia
Definition
impairment of language usually caused by damage to the left hemisphere
Term
arousal
Definition
condition in which the sympathetic nervous system is in control
Term
assimilation
Definition
interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schema
Term
association areas
Definition
areas of the cerebral cortex which have no specific motor or sensory repsonsibilities, but rather are involved in thinking, memory and judgment
Term
associative learning
Definition
learning in which an organism learns that certain events occur together, such as my cat knowing that she will be fed when I get home from work
Term
attachment
Definition
theory developed by Harlow; types include secure and insecure
Term
auditory canal
Definition
the area that sound waves pass through to reach the eardrum
Term
authoritarian
Definition
style of parenting in which the parent creates strict rules for the child and the child has little or no input into determining the rules
Term
automatic nervous system
Definition
division of the nervous system that control the glands and organs; its divisions arouse or calm
Term
availability heuristic
Definition
this cognitive shortcut features the idea that events which are vividly in memory seem to be more common
Term
axon
Definition
extension of the neuron which carries, via an action potential, information that will be sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands
Term
babbling
Definition
stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds
Term
behavioral
Definition
perspective on psychology that sees psychology as an objective science without reference to mental states
Term
belief perseverance
Definition
situation in which one's beliefs continue despite the fact that the ground for the beliefs have been discredited
Term
biological
Definition
perspective that stresses links between biology and behavior
Term
bipolar disorder
Definition
mood disorder in one experiences both manic and depressed episodes
Term
brainstem
Definition
oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells upon entering the skull; controls fundamental survival processes like heartrate and breathing
Term
bulimia
Definition
eating disorder characterized by excessive eating followed by purging
Term
case study
Definition
scientific investigation in which a single subject is studied in great detail
Term
CAT scan
Definition
a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography
Term
central nervous system
Definition
consists of the brain and the spinal cord
Term
cerebellum
Definition
brain structure that controls well-learned motor activities like riding a bike
Term
cerebral cortex
Definition
the fabric of interconnecting cells that blankets the brain hemispheres; the brain's center for information processing and control
Term
chaining
Definition
using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills
Term
chunking
Definition
organizing units of information into manageable units
Term
circadian rhythm
Definition
the daily biological rhythms that occur in a 24-hour period
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
method of learning in which a neutral stimulus can be used to elicit a response that is usually a natural response to a stimulus
Term
cochlea
Definition
this coiled structure in the inner ear is fluid-filled and in it the energy from sound waves stimulate hair cells
Term
cognitive
Definition
perspective on psychology that stresses the importance of mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, etc
Term
conditioned response
Definition
in classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus
Term
conditioning
Definition
generally, learning in which certain experiences make certain behaviors more or less likely; there are two forms of this
Term
cones
Definition
neurons in the retina that are responsible for color vision
Term
confirmation bias
Definition
a tendency to search for information that supports one's preconceptions
Term
confounding variable
Definition
extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable
Term
control group
Definition
subjects in an experiment who do not receive application of the independent variable but are measured nonetheless for the dependent variable
Term
cornea
Definition
the transparent outer covering of the eye
Term
corpus callosum
Definition
the fibers that connect the right and left hemispheres, enabling them to communicate
Term
correlation
Definition
the degree of relationship between two variables
Term
correlation coefficient
Definition
a positive one near 1.0 indicates two variable are positively related; a negative number indicates a negative relationship; zero indicates no relationship
Term
cross-sectional
Definition
type of study that measures a variable across several age groups at the same time
Term
debriefing
Definition
giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed
Term
delta waves
Definition
largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep
Term
dendrite
Definition
a branch off the cell body of a neuron that receives new information from other neurons
Term
dependent variable
Definition
the variable that the experimenter measures at the end of the experiment
Term
depressant
Definition
any agent that reduces the activity of the CNS
Term
discrimination
Definition
treating members of different races, religions, ethnic groups differently; usually associated with prejudice
Term
dopamine
Definition
a neurotransmitter that is associated with Parkinson's disease (too little of it) and schizophrenia (too much of it)
Term
dreams
Definition
occur most often during REM sleep; may be caused by activation-synthesis, or may be a way of cementing memories
Term
eardrum
Definition
also called the tympanic membrane
Term
echoic
Definition
term that describes memory of sounds
Term
EEG
Definition
initials of a method of representation of brain waves
Term
egocentrism
Definition
in a toddler, the belief that others perceive the world in the same way that he or she does
Term
encoding
Definition
conversion of sensory information into a form that can be retained as a memory
Term
endocrine system
Definition
the slow messenger system of the body; produces hormones that affect many bodily functions
Term
endorphins
Definition
neurotransmitters that give one a feeling of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain
Term
experiment
Definition
form of scientific investigation in which one variable is tested to determine its effect on another
Term
experimental group
Definition
subjects in an experiment to whom the independent variable is administered
Term
extinction
Definition
in classical conditioning, the process of eliminating the previously acquired association of the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
Term
extrinsic
Definition
term that describes motivations that drive behavior in order to gain rewards from outside forces
Term
fetal alcohol syndrome
Definition
sometimes the result in a child of the mother's excessive drinking while pregnant, characterized by low birth weight, facial abnormalities, mental retardation
Term
fixed-interval
Definition
describes the schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday
Term
fixed-ratio
Definition
describes a schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker is paid for a certain sum for each product produced
Term
fovea
Definition
the central focus area of the retina
Term
ganglion cells
Definition
their axons form the optic nerve
Term
glial cells
Definition
this acts as a support system for neurons
Term
hallucination
Definition
a false sensory perception that seems to be real but for which there is not an actual external stimulus
Term
hallucinogen
Definition
a substance capable of producing a sensory effect in the absence of real external sensory stimuli
Term
heuristic
Definition
a useful, but unprovable, cognitive shortcut, such as a "rule of thumb"
Term
hindsight bias
Definition
the tendency, after an event occurs, to overestimate the likelihood that an event could have been predicted
Term
hippocampus
Definition
limbic system component associated with memory
Term
hormone
Definition
chemical substance secreted by endocrine glands that affect body processes
Term
hypothalmus
Definition
limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions
Term
iconic
Definition
term that describes the memory of images
Term
imprinting
Definition
evidence of critical period in some animals; they follow the first moving thing they see after hatching
Term
independent
Definition
type of variable manipulated by the experimenter
Term
inferiority complex
Definition
Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences
Term
interneurons
Definition
cells in the spinal cord through which reflexes travel without going to the brain
Term
intrinsic
Definition
term that describes motivations that derive from one's interest in the object of the motivation, rather than from rewards that one might gain
Term
law of effect
Definition
Thorndike's rule that behaviors which have positive outcomes tend to be repeated
Term
learned helplessness
Definition
lack of motivation to avoid unpleasant stimuli after one has failed before to escape similar stimuli
Term
lens
Definition
a curved, transparent element of the vision system that provides focus
Term
lesion
Definition
any destruction or damage to brain tissue
Term
long term
Definition
refers to memory that is stored effectively in the brain and may be accessed over an extended period of time
Term
marijuana
Definition
a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive
Term
mean
Definition
numerical average of a set of numbers
Term
median
Definition
middle number of a set of numbers
Term
medulla
Definition
part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure
Term
memory
Definition
functions associated with this include encoding, storage and retrieval
Term
mode
Definition
most commonly occurring number in a set of numbers
Term
modeling
Definition
the process of observing and imitating a behavior
Term
morpheme
Definition
in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
Term
motor cortex
Definition
an area of the brain, near the rear of the frontal lobes, that controls voluntary movement
Term
motor neuron
Definition
this carries information from the brain to the muscles; also called "efferent"
Term
MRI
Definition
a technique that enables us to see static images of the brain's structures; uses magnetism to achieve this effect
Term
myelin sheath
Definition
a layer of fatty tissue encasing a neuron's axon that speeds transmission
Term
nature v. nurture
Definition
name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior
Term
negative reinforcement
Definition
in operant conditioning, removing something unpleasant in order to elicit more of a particular behavior
Term
neural network
Definition
refers to interconnected neurons cells
Term
neuron
Definition
the fundamental building block of the nervous system
Term
neurotransmitter
Definition
a chemical that is released by a neuron for the purpose of carrying information across the gaps (synapses) between neurons
Term
normal distribution
Definition
describes a symmetrical, bell shaped curve that shows the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes
Term
NREM
Definition
refers to sleep during which there is no rapid eye movement
Term
object permanence
Definition
recognition that things continue to exist even though hidden from sight; infants generally gain this after 3 to 7 months of age
Term
observational learning
Definition
change in behavior due to watching other people behave
Term
occipital
Definition
this lobe contains the primary vision processing function
Term
olfactory bulb
Definition
the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose
Term
operant conditioning
Definition
a method of influencing behavior by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing undesired ones
Term
optic nerve
Definition
the axons of the ganglion cells form this
Term
oval window
Definition
membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations
Term
parasympathetic
Definition
the branch of the nervous system that automatically calms us down when the reason for arousal has passed
Term
parietal
Definition
lobe that contains the sensory cortex
Term
peripheral nervous system
Definition
the subsystem of the nervous system that does not include the CNS
Term
PET scan
Definition
method of brain imaging using positron emissions
Term
phoneme
Definition
in language, smallest distinctive sound unit
Term
pituitary
Definition
gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system
Term
placebo
Definition
an inert substance given to the control group in an experiment
Term
placebo effect
Definition
phenomenon that some people get better even though they receive not medication but an inert substance which should have no medical effect
Term
plasticity
Definition
the ability of the brain to adapt to damage by reorganizing functions
Term
pons
Definition
part of the brain, works with the cerebellum in coordinating voluntary movement; neural stimulation studied in activation synthesis theory may originate here
Term
preoperational
Definition
Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, when egocentrism declines
Term
punishment
Definition
can be either positive or negative, intended to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
Term
refractory period
Definition
resting time; occurs in both neuron firing and in human sexual response
Term
rehearsal
Definition
conscious repetition of information in order to fix it in memory, such as practicing a list of terms to memorize
Term
reinforcer
Definition
in operant conditioning any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Term
REM
Definition
describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases
Term
representative heuristic
Definition
this cognitive short cut enables one to generalization based on how closely a stimulus matches a typical member of a class
Term
reticular formation
Definition
a network of cells in the brainstem that filters sensory information and is involved in arousal and alertness
Term
retina
Definition
the sensory reception system of the eye; includes rods and cones
Term
retrieval
Definition
the process of recovering information stored in memory
Term
retroactive interference
Definition
when new learning disrupts the recall of previously-learned information
Term
rods
Definition
responsible for black and white vision
Term
scatterplot
Definition
name for a graph of data points in a two variable correlation
Term
schedule of reinforcement
Definition
these include fixed interval and variable ratio
Term
schema
Definition
a collection of basic knowledge about a category of information; serves as a means of organization and interpretation of that information
Term
semantics
Definition
in language, study of meanings of words
Term
sensorimotor
Definition
describes Piaget's stage in which the child explores the world through interaction of his mouth and hands with the environment
Term
sensory cortex
Definition
the parts of the brain that receive information from the sensory receptors
Term
sensory neurons
Definition
nervous system cells that receive information from the environment
Term
serial position effect
Definition
this tells us that the best recall of a list of items will be of those at the beginning of the list
Term
serotonin
Definition
a neurotransmitter; associated with improved mood and other positive emotions
Term
shaping
Definition
an operant conditioning technique in which reinforces guide behavior to closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Term
short-term
Definition
type of memory that holds a few items briefly before they are lost
Term
sleep apnea
Definition
a disorder characterized by cessation of breathing during sleep
Term
sleep spindles
Definition
short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep
Term
split brain
Definition
a condition in which the two brain hemispheres are isolated by cutting the corpus callosum
Term
spontaneous recovery
Definition
in classical conditioning the re-occurence of conditioning after it had appeared to be extinct
Term
standard deviation
Definition
a computation of how much scores vary around a mean
Term
sympathetic
Definition
part of the nervous system that controls the "flight or fight" response
Term
synaptic gap
Definition
space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the receptors of the next neuron
Term
syntax
Definition
in language the set of rules that describe how words are arranged to make sentences
Term
temporal
Definition
the lobe that controls audition
Term
thalamus
Definition
the sensory switchboard
Term
threshold
Definition
in a neuron, reaching this causes the neuron to fire
Term
twin studies
Definition
a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior
Term
unconditioned response
Definition
in conditioning the behavior elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Term
unconditioned stimulus
Definition
in conditioning it elicits the UCR
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