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Definition
| The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (a.k.a "I knew it all along.") |
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Definition
| Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. |
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Definition
| An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. |
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| A testable prediction, often implied by a theory. |
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Definition
| A statement of the procedure (operations) used to define research variables. Ex: Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. |
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Definition
| Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other revealing universal principles. |
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Definition
| An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. |
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Definition
| A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. |
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Definition
| All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) |
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Definition
| A sample that fairly represents a population because each memeber has an equal chance of inclusion. |
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Definition
| Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. |
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Definition
| A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. |
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Definition
| A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1). |
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Definition
| A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). |
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Definition
| The perception of a relationship where none exists. |
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Definition
| A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. Important note: only method that enables researcher to establish cause-and-effect relationships. |
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Definition
| Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups. |
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Definition
| A procedure in which the subjects do not know wheter they are in the experiment or control group. |
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Definition
| A procedure in which the neither the researcher nor the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. Important note: reduces experimenter bias. |
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Definition
| An inactive substance or fake treatment often used as a control technique in drug research. |
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Definition
| Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. |
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Definition
| In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. |
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Definition
| In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. |
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Definition
| The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. |
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Definition
| The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. |
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Definition
| A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. |
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Definition
| The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. |
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Definition
| The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of score. |
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Definition
| The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. |
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Definition
| The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. |
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Definition
| A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. |
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Definition
| (Normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% withing one standard deviation) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. |
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Definition
| Measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period of time. |
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Definition
| Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time. |
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Definition
| A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occured by chance. |
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Definition
| The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. |
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Definition
| An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. |
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Term
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Definition
| All participation must be voluntary. Participants should be told that they are free to withdraw from the research at any time. |
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Definition
| Only justified when there is no alternative and the findings justify the use of deception because of scientific, educational, or applied value. |
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Definition
| When deception is used, subjects must be debriefed to explain the true purpose of the study and clear up and misconceptions or concerns. |
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Definition
| All information about participants must remain private. |
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Definition
| Many college courses include research participation as a course requirement or opportunity for extra credit. All students must be given an option to choose an alternative activity of equal value. |
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Definition
| A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. |
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Definition
| A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurons that carry outgoing infromation from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. |
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Term
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Definition
| The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. (receives messages from other cells) |
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Definition
| The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. |
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Definition
| A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. |
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Definition
| A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. |
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Definition
| The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. |
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Term
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Definition
| The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this juntion is called the synaptic gap of synaptic cleft. |
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Definition
| Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. |
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Term
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. |
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory. Associated with Alzheimer's disease (ACh-producing neurons deteriorate) and muscular disorders. |
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Term
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Excess dopamine receptor activity is linked to schizophrenia. Starved of dopamine, the brain produces the tremors and decreased mobility of Parkinson's disease. |
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Term
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression. Prozac and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels. |
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Term
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal. Undersupply can depress mood. |
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Term
| GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) |
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Definition
| A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Udersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomia. |
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Term
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Definition
| A major exitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. Oversupply can overstimulate brain, produce migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food). |
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Term
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Definition
| Natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain contol and to pleasure. |
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Term
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Definition
| A molecule similar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor and mimic its effects. |
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Term
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Definition
| Molecules that also bind to receptors but their effect is instead to block a neurotransmitter's functioning. |
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Term
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Definition
| The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain and spinal cord. |
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Term
| Peripheral Nervous System |
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Definition
| The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. |
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Term
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Definition
| Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. |
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Definition
| The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (a.k.a the skeletal nervous system). Memory tip: Soma means body. |
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Definition
| The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Memory tip: remember auto means involuntary. |
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Term
| Sympathetic Nervous System |
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Definition
| The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. |
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Term
| Parasympathetic Nervous System |
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Definition
| The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. Memory tip: link the "p" with placid, meaning calm. |
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Term
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Definition
| A simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. |
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Term
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Definition
| The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress ("fight-or-flight" response). |
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Term
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Definition
| The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. |
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Term
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Definition
| Tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentaly caused destruction of brain tissue. |
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Term
| Electroencephalogram (EEG) |
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Definition
| An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. |
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Term
| Computed Tomography (CAT) Scan |
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Definition
| A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice throught the body. Used to assess for brain damage. |
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Term
| Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan |
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Definition
| A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. Used to identify brain areas active during ordinary activities. |
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Term
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
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Definition
| A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. |
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Term
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Definition
| A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function. |
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Definition
| The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enter the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. |
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Definition
| The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. |
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Definition
| A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. |
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Definition
| The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it receives input from all of the senses, except smell, and directs this information to the appropriate cortical areas and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. |
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Term
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Definition
| The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; responsible for coordinating fine muscle movement and maintaining balance (posture and equilibrium). |
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Definition
| Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the crebral hemisphere; associated with emotions and drives. |
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Term
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Definition
| Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotions such as aggression, fear, and disgust. |
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Definition
| A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature; maintains homeostasis), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. |
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Definition
| The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. |
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Definition
| Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons (worker bees to the cerebral cortex's queen bee). |
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Definition
| Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. Responsible for abstract thought and emotional control. |
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Term
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Definition
| Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receive and interpret bodily sensations, such as pressure, temperature, touch, pain, and the location of body parts. |
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Definition
| Located at the back of the brain; responsible for vision and visual perception. |
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Definition
| Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas (process incoming sensory information from the ears), each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. |
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Definition
| In the left frontal lobe; critical in speech production. Controls language expression-an area that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. An individual with damage to Broca's area would have difficulty making the muscle movements needed for speech. |
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Definition
| In the left temporal lobe; plays a crucial role in language development. Controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression. An individual with damage to Wernicke's area would have difficulty comprehending a spoken request for directions. |
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Definition
| An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. |
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Definition
| Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, and speaking. |
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Term
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Definition
| Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) of to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding). |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| The formation of new neurons. |
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Term
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Definition
| The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. |
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Term
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Definition
| A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (manily those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. Used to prevent the spread of severe epileptic seizures. |
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Definition
| Specializes in verbal and analytical functions: positive emotions, controls muscles for speech, controls movements, spontaneity, memory for words and numbers, understanding speech and writing. |
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Term
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Definition
| Focuses on nonverbal abilities, such as visual recognition tasks and music: negative emotions, response to commands, memory for shapes, memory for music, understanding spatial relationships, understanding images. |
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Definition
| Our awareness of ourselves and our environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). |
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Term
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Definition
| The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. |
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Definition
| The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. |
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Term
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Definition
| Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. |
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Term
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Definition
| A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. |
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Definition
| The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein. |
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Term
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Definition
| The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that oraganism's chromosomes. |
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Definition
| Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. |
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Definition
| Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brother and sister, but they share a fetal environment. |
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Definition
| The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. |
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Definition
| The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). |
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Definition
| The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. |
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Definition
| The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. |
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Term
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Definition
| Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. |
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Definition
| The focuting of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. |
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Definition
| The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. |
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Definition
| The processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning. |
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Term
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Definition
| The retention of encoded information over time. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of getting information out of memory storage. |
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Definition
| The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. |
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Term
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Definition
| Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. |
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Term
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Definition
| The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from lont-term memory. |
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Definition
| The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of concious problem solving. |
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Term
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Definition
| Unconcious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. |
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Definition
| Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
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Term
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Definition
| The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. |
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Definition
| Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. |
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Definition
| The encoding of picture images. |
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Definition
| The encoding of sound, expecially the sound of words. |
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Term
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Definition
| The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words. |
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Definition
| Mental pictures; a powerful aid to efforful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. |
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Term
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Definition
| Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. |
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Definition
| A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photograph or picture-image memory lasting no mokkre than a few thenths of a second. |
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Definition
| A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. |
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Term
| Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) |
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Definition
| An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for leaning and memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Retention independent of concious recollection (nondeclaritve or procedural memory). |
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Definition
| Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory). |
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Term
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Definition
| A neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. |
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