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AP Psychology
300+ terms
256
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
03/05/2008

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Aaron Beck's view of depression
Definition
Cognitive theory - depression is caused by negative thinking and therapy is used to change the automatice negative thoughts
Term
absolute threshold
Definition
the minimum amount of stimulus energy that can be detected fifty percent of the time
Term

achievement v. aptitude tests

Definition

achievement test = assess material learned for mastery

aptitude test = test for ability/potential

Term
action vs. resting potential
Definition

action - an impulse that travels down an axon when the neuron becomes depolarized and sodium rushes into the cell.  This kind of nerve communicatino is all or nonre: the cell either fires at full strength or does not fire at all

resting  - the stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is inactive

Term
acuity (in vision)
Definition
visual resolution or clarity, which is greatest in the fovea because of its large concentration of cones
Term
Afferent neurons vs. Efferent neurons
Definition

afferent - nerves that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body

efferent - nerves that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body

Term

agonist vs. antagonist chemicals

(See text p. 65)

Definition

agonist - a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter

a chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter

Term
Ainsworth Strange Situation (Paradigm)
Definition
Take a child to unfamiliar playroom with mother & a stranger; mother leaves briefly.  "Secure" attachment = child is glad to seem other, but is also open to new situations.
Term
Albert Bandura's view of learning
Definition
Behavior is learned by observation through modeling
Term
Albert Ellis' Rational Emotive Therapy
Definition
an approach to therapy that focuses on altering clients' patterns of irrational (catastrophic) thinking to reduce maladaptive emotions and behavior
Term
Alfred Adler's inferiority complex
Definition
Personality is a result of overcoming physical weaknesses in which one feels one has to overcompsensate
Term
algorithm
Definition
a systematic procedure that cannot fail to produce a solution to a problem - but often not the most efficient way to produce a solution
Term
all-or-nothing law (all-or-none law)
Definition
a neuron either fires at full strength or not at all
Term
altruism
Definition
an unselfish concern with another's welfare
Term

amnesia

(anterograde / retrograde)

Definition

anterograde - loss of memories for events that occur after a head injury

retrograde - loss of memories that occur before a head injury

Term
androgyny
Definition
A person possesses both female and male characteristics
Term
apparent motion
Definition
perceive something is moving when it isn't (like the phi phenomenon)
Term
arousal
Definition

Increased arousal is associated with improved performance up to a point, after which higher arousal leads to poorer performance. 

The optimal level of arousal for a task depends on the complexity of the task.

(The Inverted - U Hypothesis)

Term

Asch's conformity study

(subject asked to compare length of a line with two other lengths on flash cards)

Definition
Solomon Asch's study on conformity found that subjects are likely to conform to others' behavior
Term
attachment
Definition
a close, emotional bond of affection between infants and their caregivers
Term
attribution theory
Definition
explanations that people use for the causes of events and for others' behavior (as well as an explanation for their own behavior)
Term
aversive conditioning
Definition
a behavior therapy in which an aversive stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elecits (gives off) an undesirable response
Term
Barnum effect (P.T. Barnum - creator of the circus)
Definition

"There's a sucker born every minute"

(people are gullible)

Term
behavior as being adaptive
Definition
an inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged
Term
bell curve (normal curve)
Definition
The normal distribution is a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve in which most scores cluster around the middle (mean) score
Term

Benjamin Whorf's theory of linguistic relativism

(also known as linguistic determinism)

Definition
theory that one's language determines the nature of one's thought
Term

binocular disparity

(retinal disparity)

Definition
a depth cue based on the difference between the two retinal images, as there is 2 1/2 inches between each eye, therefore each eye receives a slightly different view of the world.
Term
blind spot
Definition
the point at which axons exit the eyeball; this exit point has no photoreceptors and is therefore insensitive to light energy/images
Term
brainstorming
Definition
a type of divergent thinking in which there is more than one right answer
Term

Broca's aphasia (aphasia = lack of ability)

See text p. 75

Definition
Broca's area is located in the left hemisphere only and is responsible for the production of speech; aphasia would therefore be an inability of speaking
Term

bystander effect

(Factors that influence it)

Definition
As the number of people in a group goes up, the chances that anyone will help a victim goes down.  Exceptions are if a person can relate to the victim and/or is in a good mood.
Term
catharsis
Definition
relieve fear by exposing unconscious thoughts and feelings
Term
Carl Rogers' Person-Centered Therapy
Definition
Sometimes called Client-Centered Therapy; the therapist listens and sometimes repeats back to the victim what they have said in order to clarify only.  The client takes the lead and talks freely.  The therapist offers unconditional positive regard.
Term
Carol Gilligan's critique of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory
Definition
her research revealed that Kohlberg's study was flawed in that he only tested males to determine which stage (preconventional, conventional, postconventional) of morality was reached; in his theory, males always scored higher; in her study she proved that females have a sense of helping others whereas males have a sense of justice
Term
chaining
Definition

an instructional procedure used in Behavioral psychology involving reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. It is frequently used for training behavioral sequences (or "chains") that are beyond the current repertoire of the learner.

Term
chunking
Definition
grouping familiar stimuli stored as a single unit
Term
classical conditioning
Definition
a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
Term
cognitive dissonance
Definition
a psychological state that exists when related cognitions are inconsistent (believing one thing, but living another)
Term

color blindness

(distinguish betweens the different kinds)

Definition

Red/Green

Blue/Yellow

Black/White

Trichromatic Theory is used to explain that a person has a deficiency in the receptors responsible for those colors.

Term
complementary colors
Definition
pairs of colors that produce gray tones when added together; on a color wheel they are opposite one another
Term

conflicts

(what are the 3 kinds)

Definition

approach-approach

approach-avoidance

avoidance-avoidance

Term
control group
Definition
subjects in a study who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group
Term
Cooper's research on visual processing
Definition
Cats were raised in darkness to test if they were born with specialized visual neurons.  Those only exposed to vertical lights had difficulty adapting to horizontal lines.  Those only exposed to horizontal lights had difficulty adapting to vertical lines.
Term
correlation coefficient
Definition
a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables
Term
cortexes of the brain
Definition

Cerebral cortex/cerebrum: outer layer of the forebrain; Motor cortex: voluntary motor functions; Visual cortex, visual functions; prefrontal cortex: includes parietal and frontal lobes 

Term
cross-sectional studies
Definition
a research design in which investigators compare groups of subjects of differing age who are observed at a single point in time
Term
crystallized intelligence
Definition
acquired/learned knowledge - it usually does not delcine with age
Term

CS

CR

UCS

UCR

(classical conditioning)

Definition

 conditioned stimulus - previously neutral stimulus that has been conditioned to give a response

conditioned response - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus - stimulus that causes a response without conditioning

unconditioned response - automatice or unlearned reaction to a stimulus

Term
Daniel Goleman's views on emotional intelligence/human competencies
Definition
Self-awareness, self-discipline, persistence & empathy are of greater consequence than IQ in much of life
Term
David McClellan's achievement motivation studies
Definition
One of the social needs (as compared to physical needs) in which it is a) a stable aspect of personality, b) can be tested using the Thematic Apperception Test, and c) those with high levels of achievement motivation are more likely to choose medium-level difficulty tasks.
Term
defense mechanisms
Definition

repressioni - bury distressing thoughts

projection - put on others one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives

displacement-take out on another what upsets you

reaction formation - exaggerated opposite of the truth

regression - revert to immature behavior

rationalization - create false excuse

identification - bolster self-esteem by taking on another's identity

intellectualization - maintain a cold attitude towards distressing things

Term
deindividuation
Definition
 state of lowered self-awareness, a temporary loss of personal identity resulting from becoming part of a group, such as an army or a mob, but it can also occur in situations wherein people feel anonymous
Term
deinstitutionalization
Definition
the practice of moving people (especially those with mental disorders and developmental disability) from mental institutions into community-based or family-based environments
Term
dendrite
Definition
branch-like parts of a neuron that receive info[image]
Term
descriptive vs. inferential statistics
Definition

descriptive - used to organize and summarize data

inferential - the use of statistics to make conclusions/inferences concerning some unknown aspect of a population

Term
determinism
Definition
every event is determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences;  free will is an illusion
Term
developmental psychology
Definition
study of human life from conception to death
Term

DSM-IV-TR

(4th edition - text revised version)

Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

 

Definition
Used for diagnosing ONLY; no treatment suggested.  Consists of 5 different axes (multi-axial) It has changed over time due to culture changes, insurance changes, etc.
Term

difference threshold

JND (Just Noticeable Difference)

Definition
a just noticeable difference, customarily abbreviated with lowercase letters as jnd, is the smallest difference in a specified modality of sensory input that is detectable by a human being. It is also known as the difference limen or the differential threshold
Term
displacement
Definition
diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target
Term
dissociative disorders
Definition
a class of disorders in which people lose contact with portions of their consciousness or memory, resulting in disruptions in their sense of identity
Term
divergent vs. convergent thinking
Definition

divergent - trying to expand the range of alternatives by generating as many possible solutions

convergent - narrowing down a list of alternatives to converge on a single correct answer

Term
dream analysis
Definition
the process of assigning meaning to dreams
Term
Ebbinghaus' research on memory
Definition
By memorizing long lists of nonsense syllables, he found that the forgetting curve shows the greatest amount of forgetting in the first few hours, then drops off.
Term
echoic (echo) memory
Definition

brief memory from sound/echo held in sensory register

Term
eidetic memory
Definition
the ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with extreme accuracy and in abundant volume
Term

electroconvulsive shock therapy

(ECT)

Definition
Used to treat extreme depression in which other therapies have failed; attaching electrodes to the head and sending voltage causes a seizure, then temporary relief.
Term
Elizabeth Loftus' eyewitness testimony
Definition
The misinformation effect (reconstructing memories) occurs when participants' recall is altered by the introduction of misleading information.
Term
empiricism
Definition
the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation
Term
endocrine system/hormones
Definition

a group of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning (pituitary - master gland secreting several hormones, thyroid - thyroxin affecting metabolism, adrenal - adrenalin, pancreas - insulin/glucagon for sugar metabolism, gonads - ovaries/testes)

 

 

Term
endorphins
Definition
family of chemicals that resemble opiates in effect that they emit a feeling of a high and painlessness
Term

episodic memory

(a.k.a flashbulb memory)

Definition
chronological, or temporarily dated, recollections of personal experiences
Term
Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
Definition

Trust v. Mistrust

Anutonomy v. shame

Initiave v. Guilt

Industry v. Inferiority

Identity v. Confusion

Intimacy v. Isolation

Generativity v. Self-Absorption

Integrity v. Despair

 

Term
ethnocentrism
Definition
the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture
Term

expectancy theory

(a.k.a.mental set)

Definition

persisting in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past

Term

experiment

(design/list/apply all steps in scientific method)

Definition

1.  Hypothesis (prediction to test a theory)

2.  Operational definition (specific aspects of the experiment)

3.  Independent Variable (manipulated)

4.  Dependent Variable (depends on IV)

5.  Experimental Group (those receiving special treatment)

6.  Control Group (no special treatment)

7.  Extraneous Variables (other than IV and DV)

8.  Samples

9.  Report the experiment

Term
extinction
Definition
the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response
Term

feature (and/or signal) detector cells

Hubel & Wisel's research on visual processing

Definition
neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli (ie: one neuron is responsible for vertical lines, one is responsible for diagonal lines, etc.)
Term
feature analysis
Definition
the process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form
Term
feral children
Definition
a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age, and has no (or little) experience of human care, loving or social behavior, and, crucially, of human language
Term

fetal alchohol syndrome

(characteristics of)

Definition
a disorder of permanent birth defects that occurs in the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy; effects are poor memory, attention deficits, impulsive behavior, and poor cause-effect reasoning
Term
figure-ground
Definition
[image]a type of perceptual organization in vision that involves assignment of edges to regions for purposes of shape determination, determination of depth across an edge, and the allocation of visual attention; often associated with Gestalt Psychology
Term
Flynn Effect
Definition
Each generation is scoring higher on standardized tests, which have to be adjusted (re-normed) to keep the average at a score of 100.
Term
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
Definition
getting people to agree to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request later
Term
fovea
Definition
a tiny spot in the center of the retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot
Term
free association
Definition
a psychoanalytic technique in which clients spontaneously express thier thoughts and feelings exactly as they occur, with as little censorship as possible
Term
frequency polygon
Definition
a line figure used to present data from a frequency distribution
Term
Freud's stages of psychosexual development
Definition
Term
frustration-aggression hypothesis
Definition
aggression is always caused by frustration, although it's not always directed at the cause of the frustration
Term
functional fixedness
Definition
the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
Term
fundamental attribution error
Definition
observers' bias in favor of internal attributions in explaining others' behavior
Term

galvanic skin response

(GRS)

Definition
an increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when sweat glands increase thier activity; a lie detector test
Term
gate control theory of pain
Definition

The mind is able to control the amount of pain perceived by, in theory, opening or not opening a 'gate' and allowing the pain to register to the brain. 

Term
Gestalt Theory
Definition
a theory of mind and brain that proposes that the brain has self-organizing tendencies; an explanation for why we see patterns and shapes; or, that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts
Term
glial cells
Definition
non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system
Term
group therapy (advantages of)
Definition

1.  Cheaper

2.  Peer support and advice

3.  Practice/observe the interaction in a social group

Term
groupthink
Definition
a process in which members of a cohsive (close-knit) group emphasize agreement at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision
Term
gustatory senses
Definition
the sensory system for taste
Term

habituation

(root word = 'habit')

Definition
a gradual reduction in the strength of a response when a stimulus event is present repeatedly; babies show less interest when an object is repeatedly presented
Term
Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Response
Definition
model of the body's stress response consisting of three stages:  alarm, resistance, exhaustion; the body reacts the same no matter the amount or the intensity of the stress
Term
Harry Harlow's research with surrogate (fake) mothers
Definition
Contact motive was discovered when young rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers and offered one wire mother with milk and another with soft cloth covering.  When tired or afraid, the monkeys chose the soft mother
Term
Hawthorne Effect
Definition

individual behaviors may be altered because people know that they are being watched/studied; Hawthorne Illinois Plant worker output increased regardless of the independent variables.

Term
heuristics
Definition
a strategy, guiding principle, or rule of thumb used in solving problems or making decisions
Term
hierarchy of needs theory by Abraham Maslow
Definition
The lowest needs must be met before higher-level needs may be met.  Levels include: physiological, safety and security, belonginess, cognitive, and self-actualization (realization of potential)
Term
high vs. low self-monitors
Definition
self-monitoring is the degree to which people attend to and control the impression they make on others in social interactions; high = adjust and change to fit in; low = stay true to onesself and don't change
Term
hindsight bias
Definition
tendency to mold one's interpretaion of the past to fit how events actually turned out; Monday morning quarterback
Term
histogram
Definition
a bar graph that presents data from a frequency distribution
Term
homeostasis
Definition
balance
Term
Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences
Definition

IQ tests emphasize verbal and math skills.  He claimed there are 8 separate types of intelligence:

logic/math, language, music, spatial, body/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist

Term
hypnosis:  major theories of
Definition
a state of heightened suggestiveness; there are no changes physically and few can actually be completely hypnotized; Ernest Hilgard's dissociation, or splitting our consciousness when, for example, we are driving but not paying attention as we are focused on what we are thinking about
Term

hypothalamus

Definition
a structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of the basic biological needs (the four "F's")
Term
id, ego, superego
Definition

Freud's 3 components of personality:

id - gotta have it now!

ego - the middle guy, reason

superego - conscience, fairy godmother

Term
identical/fraternal twin research
Definition
experiments/research is done to determine the effects of nature and/or nurture
Term

illusory correlation

Definition
a misperception that occurs when people estimate that they have encournterd more confirmations of a person's traits than they have actually seen; watching a political debate - one notices the good things about your favorite candidate and the bad things about your despised candidate
Term

imaging techniques to study the brain/body

PET

CAT/CT Scan

MRI

fMRI

Definition

PET Scan - radioactive markers determine the area of the brain that is being used

CAT/CT Scan - slices of the brain are observed

MRI - 3-D images

fMRI - functional MRI

Term
imprinting
Definition
learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject
Term
incentives
Definition

behavior that is goal directed; actions are directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and toward avoiding unwanted stimuli

Term
independent / dependent variables
Definition

independent - the variable manipulated by the researcher

dependent - the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable

Term
inductive vs. deductive reasoning
Definition

inductive - the process of reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed to support the conclusion but do not ensure its truth

deductive - the type of reasoning that proceeds from general principles or premises to derive particular information

Term
industrial (organizational) psychology
Definition
area of research in which work environment, relationships, hiring, productivity are studied
Term
in-group / out-group bias
Definition

in-group bias - the group that people belong to and identify with

out-group bias - people who are not part of the ingroup

Term
inner ear - vestibular sense
Definition
the sensory system that responds to gravity and keeps people informed of their body's location in space; semi-circular canals in the inner ear contain hair cells encased in fluid that moves with the person and the resulting sense is derived
Term
instinct
Definition

unlearned, inherited fixed action patterns of responses or reactions to certain kinds of stimuli;

sucking, swallowing, stepping, routing, startling in humans

Term
instrumental - operant conditioning
Definition
a forrom of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences
Term

Intelligence Quotient

(I.Q.)

Definition
mental age divided by chronological age times 100
Term

internal vs. external locus of control

(locus = location)

Definition
internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control; externals attribute outcomes of events to external circumstances (luck)
Term
introvert / extrovert
Definition

introvert - people who tend to be preoccupied with the internal world of their own thoughts, feelings, and experiences

extrovert - people who tend to be interested in the external world of people and things

Term

interference

(proactive vs. retroactive)

Definition

proactive - a memory problem that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the new

retroactive - when recently learned info interferes with the old

Term
internalization
Definition
to make others' attitudes and ideas your own
Term
intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
Definition

intrinsic - when people engage in an activity, without obvious external incentives, such as a hobby

extrinisic - people want an external reward, such as money or recognition

Term
James-Lange theory of emotions
Definition
The physical occurs first (ie: fear at the sight of a bear), then the emotions occur in response to the physical.
Term
John Garcia's ideas on the limits of conditioning
Definition
taste aversion = the exception to the rules of conditioning in that one bad experience (ie: vomiting) with a food/taste = permanent conditioning, even if vomiting occurs several hours after the food/taste
Term
just-world phenomenon
Definition
people usually get what they deserve
Term
Karen Horney's (Hor - nay') views on development
Definition

"Neo-Freudism"

(new Freud theorists) studied neurosis; women don't have "penis envy", but they envy men's power

Term
kinesthetics
Definition
the sense of the relative position of neighboring parts of the body
Term
Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning
Definition
A child doesn't develop his/her own morals until age 7, then preconventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages occur
Term
L-dopa
Definition
chemical used to treat Parkinsons' Disease, as it converts to dopamine
Term
learning curve
Definition
a person engaged in a repetitive task will improve his performance over time; the curve shows improvement in productivity at a diminishing rate as the # produced increases
Term

limbic system

(structures and functions of)

Definition
A series of structures in the brain responsible for emotion and memory.  The amygdala is especially responsible for emotion, the hippocampus is especially responsible for memory being transferred from short-term to long-term, and the olfactory system is directly tied into the limbic system
Term
linear perspective
Definition
all parallel lines converge toward a single point; stimulus cue for depth perception
Term
lithium
Definition
a salt-type medicationi used to treat bipolar disorders
Term
longitudinal studies
Definition
a research design in which investigators observe one group of subjects repeateedly over a period of time
Term
Martin Seligman's learned helplessness
Definition
a human being or an animal has learned to believe that it is helpless in a particular situation. It has come to believe that it has no control over its situation and that whatever it does is futile
Term

measures of central tendency:

mean, median, mode

Definition

mean- the average

median - the number in the middle

mode- the most frequently occurring number

Term
measures of variability: range and standard deviation
Definition

variability - varies from the mean

range - the difference numerically from the largest and smallest numbers in a series

standard deviation - an index of the amount of variability in a set of data

Term

memory

(kinds: sensory, short-term, long-term)

Definition

sensory - preserving information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second (ie: echo, afterimage, etc.)

short term - a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 - 30 seconds

long term - an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time

Term
mental age
Definition
an intelligence test score, expressed as the chronological age for which a given level of performance is average or typical
Term
metacognition
Definition

thinking about thinking

the knowledge (i.e. awareness) of one's cognitive processes and the efficient use of this self-awareness to self-regulate these cognitive processes

Term
method of loci
Definition
a mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a fmailiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations (loci)
Term

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Test

(MMPI)

Definition
one of the most frequently used personality tests in mental health. The test is used by trained professionals to assist in identifying personality structure and psychopathology
Term
misinformation effect
Definition
phenomenon that occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading postevent information (Elizabeth Loftus' eyewitness testimony studies)
Term
modeling
Definition
observing and doing behavior of another
Term
monocular vs. binocular depth cues
Definition

monocular - clues about distance based on the image from either eye alone (linear perspective, texture gradient, interposition, relative size, height in plane, light and shadow) - text p. 112

binocular - cues from both eyes

Term
motion parallax
Definition
a static image appears to be moving due to the cognitive effects of interacting color contrasts and shape position
Term

myelin sheath

(where and what purpose?)

Definition
The fatty coating on many axons that serves the purpose of making the nerve message more accurate/quick
Term
narcissism
Definition
love of oneself, and refers to the set of character traits concerned with self-admiration, self-centeredness and self-regard
Term

nervous system

(major parts)

Definition

Central Nervous System = brain/spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System = Autonomic/Somatic

Brain = Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain

Autonomic = sympathetic,parasympathetic

Somatic = Afferent, Efferent

Term

neuron

(three basic parts)

Definition

Dendrites (receive messages)

Soma (body)

Axon (sends messages, most have myelin sheath as a coating to more efficiently send the message)

Term

neurotransmitters

(major types)

Definition

Acetylcholine - movement, attention, Alzheimers

Dopamine - schizophrenia (too much dopamine), Parkinson's (too little dopamine)

Norepinephrine - mood

Serotonin - mood

Endorphins - pain relief, pleasure

 

Term
newborn baby reflexes
Definition
step, startle, suck, swallow, root
Term
norms
Definition
the frequency at which a particular score occurs, which allows scores to be compared statistically
Term
novelty preference
Definition
human/primate infants prefer to look at novelties (rareties) rather than the familiar
Term
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Definition
a type of anxiety disorder marked by persistent, uncontrollable intrusions of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and urges to engage in senseless rituals (compulsions)
Term
occipital lobe
Definition
the visual processing center of the brain
Term
Oedipal conflict
Definition
according to Freud, children's manifestation of erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent; occurs during the phallic stage
Term
one eye problem
Definition
what you couldn't do well if you had only one eye
Term
opponent process theory of visual processing
Definition

Color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic (opposite) responses to pairs of colors (red/green, blue/yellow, black/white) and explains why we see an afterimage in the opposite color

 

Term
optic nerve
Definition
the structure in the eye that brings the visual message to the occipital lobe
Term
optimistic explanatory style
Definition
Martin Seligman's theory of a factor (view things in a positive manner) that one uses to deal with stress leads to better mental and physical health
Term
pancreas
Definition
gland in the endocrine system that produces insulin and glucagon, which metabolize sugar in the blood system
Term

panic attacks

(defined and suggested treatment)

Definition
sudden, discrete periods of intense anxiety, mounting physiological arousal, fear and discomfort that are associated with a variety of somatic and cognitive symptoms.[1] The onset of these episodes is typically abrupt, and may have no obvious triggers
Term
paradoxical sleep during REM
Definition
During Rapid Eye Movement, the brain waves are beta (awake/alert) but the body is essentially unable to move/act our the dream.
Term
paresis
Definition
slight or partial paralysis
Term
perceptual constancy (size, color, shape, etc.)
Definition
the perception of an object or quality as constant under changing conditions; In vision this means perceiving a color as "constant under changing conditions of illumination;

There are several types: Shape constancy, Size constancy, Color constancy, Light constancy,  Distance constancy, Location constancy

Term
perceptual set
Definition
Perception of an object/function is stuck and unable to be flexible
Term
phenylketonuria (PKU)
Definition
an genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH);

Left untreated, this condition can cause problems with brain development, leading to progressive mental retardation and seizures.

Term
phi phenomenon
Definition
a perceptual illusion described by Max Wertheimer  in which a disembodied perception of motion is produced by a succession of still images
Term
phonemes & morphemes
Definition
In language, a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound; a morpheme is the smallest unit of language with meaning (prefix, one-syllable word, suffix)
Term
photoreceptors
Definition
receptor cells located in the retina and responsible for the perception of light energy and the translation into sight
Term
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
Definition

Sensorimotor (0 - 2 yrs.)

Preoperational (2 - 7 yrs.)

Concrete operational (7 - 11 yrs.)

Formal Operational (11 - adult)

Term
pineal gland
Definition
gland in endocrine system which emits melatonin, a hormone related to sleep and the circadian rhythm
Term
pituitary gland
Definition
master gland, emits multiple hormones including the growth hormone; also involved in the body's response to stress
Term
placebo
Definition
a preparation which is pharmacologically inert but which may have a therapeutic effect based solely on the power of suggestion
Term
positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Definition
A newer classification of types of schizophrenia:  positive symptons = behavioral excesses or peculiarities (ie: hallucinations, delusions); positive symptoms = behavioral deficits (ie. flattened emotions, social withdrawal)
Term
positive reinforcement
Definition

an increase in the future frequency of a behavior due to the addition of a stimulus immediately following a response (vs. negative reinforcement - the removal of an aversive stimulus)

Both are intended to increase the behavior

Term
post-traumatic stress disorder
Definition
A. Exposure to a traumatic event
B. Persistent reexperience
C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma
D. Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (e.g. difficulty falling or staying asleep or hypervigilance)
E. Duration of symptoms more than 1 month
F. Significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning
Term
Premack principle
Definition
David Premack's operant conditioning:  natural reinforcers (ie: kids naturally like t.v., so parents use it as a reward for washing the dishes)
Term
primacy effect vs. recency effect
Definition
(serial position effect -recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list.) people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best (the recency effect). Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items (the primacy effect).
Term
primary vs. secondary reinforcers
Definition

primary - events that are inherently (naturally) reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs ie: food, drink, warmth)

secondary - reinforcers have qualities associated with primary reinforcers ie: money, which buys food

Term

projective tests

(Thematic Apperception Test, Rorschach Tests)

Definition
Abstract testing of personality in which one projects one's personality into their story/description of a vague image (TAT = person decribes a picture; Rorschach = person describes an inkblot)
Term
prosocial behavior
Definition
doing something positive, even if no one else knows it
Term

proximity

(effects on relationship)

Definition
Proximity = closeness (person has to have contact with someone before they can develop a relationship with them)
Term
prototype
Definition
an original model in which subsequent forms are to be based
Term
punishment
Definition
the reduction of a behavior via a stimulus which is applied (adding something unpleasant, such as spanking)
Term
reality principle (function of ego)
Definition
One of Freud's 3 components of personality in which one realisticially perceives events
Term
reliability vs. validity in testing
Definition

2 aspects of a good test:

reliability = scores of repeated testing are similar

validity = the test tests what it was meant to test

Term

REM and all stages of sleep

Definition

Stage 1 - light sleep, alpha brain waves

Stage 2 - sleep spindles occur

Stage 2, 3, 4 - respiration, heart rate, muscle tension, body temperature decline; brain waves are delta and slow-wave)

 Sleep cycle reverses itself and one moves upward

REM - beta waves,  most dreaming occurs

Term
repression
Definition
defense mechanism in which distressing thoughts and feelings are buried
Term

reticular formation

(related to sleep, arousal, attention)

Definition
the core of the brainstem running through (web-like netting) the mid-brain, pons and medulla; serves the purpose of alerting, awakening; can be suppressed by coma and anesthesia
Term

retinal disparity

(aka - binocular disparity)

Definition
Because each eye is in a different horizontal position, each has a slightly different perspective on a scene yielding different retinal images
Term
Robert Rescorla's findings on conditioning
Definition

classical conditioning; second-order conditioning/higher-order conditioning

Term

rods & cones

(structures and differences)

Definition

Receptor cells in the retina

Cones are for day vision and color vision, mostly located in the fovea (center of vision)

Rods are for night vision, black and white, and peripheral vision; located outside of the fovea

Term
rooting reflex
Definition
touch a baby's cheek, the baby turns towards the touch, assuming they will find the nipple
Term
sample
Definition
theh collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study
Term
scatterplot
Definition
a graph in which paired X and Y scores for each subject are plotted as single points
Term

schedules of reinforcement

(5 kinds; which are most/least effective?)

 

Definition

Continual = reward every time; least effective

Intermittent:

Fixed ratio = reward given after a fixed # of times

Variable ratio =  a variable # of times

Fixed interval = reward given after a fixed time interval

Variable interval = a variable amount of time

Term
schema
Definition
an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event
Term
schizophrenia
Definition
disorder marked by disturbances in thought that spill over to affect perceptual, social, and emotional processes
Term
selective attention
Definition
focusing on only part of a stimulus field
Term
self-efficacy
Definition
according to Albert Bandura, learned expectations about the probability of success in given situations; a person's expectation of success in a given situation may be enough to create that success and even to blunt the impact of minor failures.
Term
self-fulfilling prophecy
Definition
an impression-formation process in which an initial impression gives off a behavior in another that confirms the impression
Term
self-serving bias
Definition
the cognitive tendency to attribute (explain) one's successes to internal characteristics ("I'm good at math") while blaming one's failures on external causes ("the test wasn't fair")
Term
semantic memory
Definition
generalized knowledge of the world that does not involve memory of specific events; word meanings
Term
serial position effect
Definition
recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list
Term
set point
Definition
the body monitors fat-cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable; weight tends to drift around the level at which factors (ie:food/energy) lead to equilibrium
Term

sexual characteristics

(primary vs. secondary)

Definition

Primary - necessary for reproduction 

Secondary - traits that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system

Term
shaping
Definition
in operant condition, a procedure that involves reinforcing responses that come closer to the desired response
Term
signal detection theory
Definition
ability to detect stimulus depends on its intensity (ie:volume of noise) and the state of the individual (ie: alertness)
Term
sleep disorders
Definition

Insomnia (difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, waking early in the morning)

Narcolepsy = falling asleep frequently during the day and immediately entering REM sleep

Sleep apnea = breathing dysfunction causes one to awake hundreds of times during the night

Term
sleeper effect
Definition
high credibility sources tend to be more effective persuaders than low credibility sources at first; over time, however, source effects appear to become diminishded.  ie:  the 'hidden' impact that a mass communication or propaganda message can have on its audience = attitude change isn't detectable until a period of time has passed
Term
social facilitation
Definition
phenomenon in which the mere presence of other people improves a person's performance on a given task
Term
social loafing
Definition
exerting less effort when performing a group task in which one's contribution cannot be identified than when performing the same task alone (ie: tug of war)
Term
social trap
Definition
One acts in his/her own interest, thereby harming the entire group (including themselves); ie. when given a choice of 3 points or 10 points as a bonus for a test, if a limited amount of 10-point choices are given, the group ultimately has too many members choosing the 10-point option, thereby ruining everyone's chances
Term

somatoform disorders

(major kinds)

 

Definition
1) somatization disorder, 2) conversion disorder, 3) pain disorder, 4) hypochondriasis, and 5) body dysmorphic disorder. Somatization disorder is a relatively rare disorder that is associated with frequent visits to the doctor.
Term

somatosensory cortex

(used for what sense?)

Definition
responsible for interpretation of all senses
Term

stages of learning

(acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, etc.)

Definition

Acquisition - formation of a new skill/cognition

Extinction - weakening/disappearance of what is learned

Spontaneous Recovery - reappearance of an extinguished response after of period of time

Term
standard deviation
Definition
an index of the amount of variability in a set of data
Term
Stanley Milgram's experiment
Definition
Study on obedience in which subjects administered what they believed were shocks to learners who made a mistake.  Considered the most unethical study in the modern psychology.
Term
Stanley Schacter's two-factor theory
Definition
Theory of emotion that states that physical and emotional responses are simultaneous, but depend on an individual's perception of the responses
Term
stereotype
Definition
widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group
Term
stimulus generalization
Definition
one has learned a response to a specific stimulus and responds in teh same way to a new stimlus that is similar to the original
Term
syllogism
Definition
theory that 2 true statements are followed by a single logical conclusion
Term
sympathetic nervous system
Definition
a branch of the autonomic nervous system; becomes more active during times of stress; the stress response comprises the fight-or-flight response.
Term

systematic desensitization

(aka: a kind of counterconditioning)

Definition
a behavior therapy used to reduce clients' anxiety responses through counterconditioning
Term
testable hypothesis
Definition
 suggested explanation for a phenomenon; a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between multiple phenomena
Term

thalamus

(and what doesn't get routed through it)

Definition
process and relay sensory (except the sense of smell) information selectively to various parts of the cerebral cortex; also plays an important role in regulating states of sleep and wakefulness
Term
Thorndike's Law of Effect
Definition
Edward Thorndike's puzzle box preceded B.F. Skinner's 'Skinner Box' used to test stimulus/response in behaviorism theory
Term
thyroid gland
Definition
controls how quickly the body burns energy, makes proteins, and how sensitive the body should be to other hormones; produces thyroid hormones, principally thyroxine; regulates the rate of metabolism
Term
tip-of-the-tongue effect
Definition
a temporary inability to remember something accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach
Term
token economy
Definition
a system of doling out symbolic reinforcers that are exchanged later for a variety of genuine reinforcers (ie: game chips later can be redeemed for a prize)
Term
trait theory of personality
Definition
The biological theory that we inherit traits that are our personality/temperament; Hans Eysenck had a hierarchy of traits that listed categories, higher and lower orders of traits
Term
tragedy of the commons
Definition
Garrett Hardin: unrestricted access to a resource (ie: a pasture) dooms the resource (ie: the grass) because of exploitation by the users
Term
transduction
Definition
conversion/transformation of one form of energy to another; in the nervous system, transduction occurs when environmental energy is transformed into electrical or neural energy; Jean Piaget's theories on cognitive development - transductive reasoning is the primary reasoning in thepreoperational stage of development: "If A causes B today, then A always causes B."
Term

validity

(different kinds)

Definition

If a test tests what it is meant to test, it is valid.

Content - a test represents what has been taught

Criterion-Related - a test result is compared to another similar test

Construct - if an abstract quality (ie: creativity) is being tested, a variety of related variables are tested to prove a theory

Term

visual cliff

Definition
Gibson and Walk's study of a glass-topped table giving the impression of a drop off in order to test the theory that infants are born with (nativists) depth perception
Term
Weber's Law
Definition
the smallest detectable difference in stimulus (ie: weight, light, etc.) is a constant fraction (ie: notice 1/30 of a pound difference when holding an object and something is added to it)
Term
Wechsler's Adult Intelligence Scale
Definition
A test for adults that used verbal plus non-verbal ability testing
Term

Wernicke's aphasia

(aphasia = lack of ability)

Definition
see p. 75 - located in left temporal lobe; the lack of ability to perceive the pitch, rhythm, and emotional tone of speech
Term
Wilder Penfield's research on the brain
Definition
stimulated brain with electrical probes to map the brain and its functions
Term

Wilhelm Wundt

(structuralism)

Definition
along with William James, regarded as the father of psychology.[3][4] In 1879, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research; sought to understand the human mind by identifying the constituent parts of human consciousness, in the same way that a chemical compound is broken into various elements
Term

William James

(functionalism)

Definition
functionalism - psychology is based on the function or purpose of consciousness, not its structure (as in structuralism)

 

Term

Yerkes/Dodson Arousal Law

(Inverted-U Hypothesis)

Definition
Task performance improves with increased emotional arousal up to a point; but as the task becomes more complex, too much emotional arousal actually harms performance
Term

Zajonc's "Mere Exposure Effect"

Definition
after being exposed to something (ie: ad that is repeated) or someone repeatedly, you being to like it/them
Term
Zimbardo Prison Experiment
Definition
Philip Zimbardo's study of college men had to be halted when the guards' actions became harmful to the inmates
Term
T-score
Definition
a standard score that sets the mean to 50 and standard deviation to ten
Term
t-test
Definition
group of statistics used to determine if a significant difference exists between the means of two sets of data
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