achievement v. aptitude tests

achievement test = assess material learned for mastery

aptitude test = test for ability/potential

action - an impulse that travels down an axon when the neuron becomes depolarized and sodium rushes into the cell.  This kind of nerve communicatino is all or nonre: the cell either fires at full strength or does not fire at all

resting  - the stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is inactive

afferent - nerves that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body

efferent - nerves that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body

agonist vs. antagonist chemicals

(See text p. 65)

agonist - a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter

a chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter

amnesia

(anterograde / retrograde)

anterograde - loss of memories for events that occur after a head injury

retrograde - loss of memories that occur before a head injury

Increased arousal is associated with improved performance up to a point, after which higher arousal leads to poorer performance. 

The optimal level of arousal for a task depends on the complexity of the task.

(The Inverted - U Hypothesis)

Asch's conformity study

(subject asked to compare length of a line with two other lengths on flash cards)

"There's a sucker born every minute"

(people are gullible)

Benjamin Whorf's theory of linguistic relativism

(also known as linguistic determinism)

binocular disparity

(retinal disparity)

Broca's aphasia (aphasia = lack of ability)

See text p. 75

bystander effect

(Factors that influence it)

an instructional procedure used in Behavioral psychology involving reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. It is frequently used for training behavioral sequences (or "chains") that are beyond the current repertoire of the learner.

color blindness

(distinguish betweens the different kinds)

Red/Green

Blue/Yellow

Black/White

Trichromatic Theory is used to explain that a person has a deficiency in the receptors responsible for those colors.

conflicts

(what are the 3 kinds)

approach-approach

approach-avoidance

avoidance-avoidance

Cerebral cortex/cerebrum: outer layer of the forebrain; Motor cortex: voluntary motor functions; Visual cortex, visual functions; prefrontal cortex: includes parietal and frontal lobes 

CS

CR

UCS

UCR

(classical conditioning)

 conditioned stimulus - previously neutral stimulus that has been conditioned to give a response

conditioned response - a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus - stimulus that causes a response without conditioning

unconditioned response - automatice or unlearned reaction to a stimulus

repressioni - bury distressing thoughts

projection - put on others one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives

displacement-take out on another what upsets you

reaction formation - exaggerated opposite of the truth

regression - revert to immature behavior

rationalization - create false excuse

identification - bolster self-esteem by taking on another's identity

intellectualization - maintain a cold attitude towards distressing things

descriptive - used to organize and summarize data

inferential - the use of statistics to make conclusions/inferences concerning some unknown aspect of a population

DSM-IV-TR

(4th edition - text revised version)

Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

difference threshold

JND (Just Noticeable Difference)

divergent - trying to expand the range of alternatives by generating as many possible solutions

convergent - narrowing down a list of alternatives to converge on a single correct answer

brief memory from sound/echo held in sensory register

electroconvulsive shock therapy

(ECT)

a group of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning (pituitary - master gland secreting several hormones, thyroid - thyroxin affecting metabolism, adrenal - adrenalin, pancreas - insulin/glucagon for sugar metabolism, gonads - ovaries/testes)

episodic memory

(a.k.a flashbulb memory)

Trust v. Mistrust

Anutonomy v. shame

Initiave v. Guilt

Industry v. Inferiority

Identity v. Confusion

Intimacy v. Isolation

Generativity v. Self-Absorption

Integrity v. Despair

expectancy theory

(a.k.a.mental set)

persisting in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past

experiment

(design/list/apply all steps in scientific method)

1.  Hypothesis (prediction to test a theory)

2.  Operational definition (specific aspects of the experiment)

3.  Independent Variable (manipulated)

4.  Dependent Variable (depends on IV)

5.  Experimental Group (those receiving special treatment)

6.  Control Group (no special treatment)

7.  Extraneous Variables (other than IV and DV)

8.  Samples

9.  Report the experiment

feature (and/or signal) detector cells

Hubel & Wisel's research on visual processing

fetal alchohol syndrome

(characteristics of)

galvanic skin response

(GRS)

The mind is able to control the amount of pain perceived by, in theory, opening or not opening a 'gate' and allowing the pain to register to the brain. 

1.  Cheaper

2.  Peer support and advice

3.  Practice/observe the interaction in a social group

habituation

(root word = 'habit')

individual behaviors may be altered because people know that they are being watched/studied; Hawthorne Illinois Plant worker output increased regardless of the independent variables.

IQ tests emphasize verbal and math skills.  He claimed there are 8 separate types of intelligence:

logic/math, language, music, spatial, body/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist

hypothalamus

Freud's 3 components of personality:

id - gotta have it now!

ego - the middle guy, reason

superego - conscience, fairy godmother

illusory correlation

imaging techniques to study the brain/body

PET

CAT/CT Scan

MRI

fMRI

PET Scan - radioactive markers determine the area of the brain that is being used

CAT/CT Scan - slices of the brain are observed

MRI - 3-D images

fMRI - functional MRI

behavior that is goal directed; actions are directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and toward avoiding unwanted stimuli

independent - the variable manipulated by the researcher

dependent - the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable

inductive - the process of reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed to support the conclusion but do not ensure its truth

deductive - the type of reasoning that proceeds from general principles or premises to derive particular information

in-group bias - the group that people belong to and identify with

out-group bias - people who are not part of the ingroup

unlearned, inherited fixed action patterns of responses or reactions to certain kinds of stimuli;

sucking, swallowing, stepping, routing, startling in humans

Intelligence Quotient

(I.Q.)

internal vs. external locus of control

(locus = location)

introvert - people who tend to be preoccupied with the internal world of their own thoughts, feelings, and experiences

extrovert - people who tend to be interested in the external world of people and things

interference

(proactive vs. retroactive)

proactive - a memory problem that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the new

retroactive - when recently learned info interferes with the old

intrinsic - when people engage in an activity, without obvious external incentives, such as a hobby

extrinisic - people want an external reward, such as money or recognition

"Neo-Freudism"

(new Freud theorists) studied neurosis; women don't have "penis envy", but they envy men's power

limbic system

(structures and functions of)

measures of central tendency:

mean, median, mode

mean- the average

median - the number in the middle

mode- the most frequently occurring number

variability - varies from the mean

range - the difference numerically from the largest and smallest numbers in a series

standard deviation - an index of the amount of variability in a set of data

memory

(kinds: sensory, short-term, long-term)

sensory - preserving information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second (ie: echo, afterimage, etc.)

short term - a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 - 30 seconds

long term - an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time

thinking about thinking

the knowledge (i.e. awareness) of one's cognitive processes and the efficient use of this self-awareness to self-regulate these cognitive processes

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Test

(MMPI)

monocular - clues about distance based on the image from either eye alone (linear perspective, texture gradient, interposition, relative size, height in plane, light and shadow) - text p. 112

binocular - cues from both eyes

myelin sheath

(where and what purpose?)

nervous system

(major parts)

Central Nervous System = brain/spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System = Autonomic/Somatic

Brain = Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain

Autonomic = sympathetic,parasympathetic

Somatic = Afferent, Efferent

neuron

(three basic parts)

Dendrites (receive messages)

Soma (body)

Axon (sends messages, most have myelin sheath as a coating to more efficiently send the message)

neurotransmitters

(major types)

Acetylcholine - movement, attention, Alzheimers

Dopamine - schizophrenia (too much dopamine), Parkinson's (too little dopamine)

Norepinephrine - mood

Serotonin - mood

Endorphins - pain relief, pleasure

Color perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic (opposite) responses to pairs of colors (red/green, blue/yellow, black/white) and explains why we see an afterimage in the opposite color

panic attacks

(defined and suggested treatment)

There are several types: Shape constancy, Size constancy, Color constancy, Light constancy,  Distance constancy, Location constancy

Left untreated, this condition can cause problems with brain development, leading to progressive mental retardation and seizures.

Sensorimotor (0 - 2 yrs.)

Preoperational (2 - 7 yrs.)

Concrete operational (7 - 11 yrs.)

Formal Operational (11 - adult)

an increase in the future frequency of a behavior due to the addition of a stimulus immediately following a response (vs. negative reinforcement - the removal of an aversive stimulus)

Both are intended to increase the behavior

A. Exposure to a traumatic event

B. Persistent reexperience

C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma

D. Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (e.g. difficulty falling or staying asleep or hypervigilance)

E. Duration of symptoms more than 1 month

F. Significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning

primary - events that are inherently (naturally) reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs ie: food, drink, warmth)

secondary - reinforcers have qualities associated with primary reinforcers ie: money, which buys food

projective tests

(Thematic Apperception Test, Rorschach Tests)

proximity

(effects on relationship)

2 aspects of a good test:

reliability = scores of repeated testing are similar

validity = the test tests what it was meant to test

REM and all stages of sleep

Stage 1 - light sleep, alpha brain waves

Stage 2 - sleep spindles occur

Stage 2, 3, 4 - respiration, heart rate, muscle tension, body temperature decline; brain waves are delta and slow-wave)

 Sleep cycle reverses itself and one moves upward

REM - beta waves,  most dreaming occurs

reticular formation

(related to sleep, arousal, attention)

retinal disparity

(aka - binocular disparity)

classical conditioning; second-order conditioning/higher-order conditioning

rods & cones

(structures and differences)

Receptor cells in the retina

Cones are for day vision and color vision, mostly located in the fovea (center of vision)

Rods are for night vision, black and white, and peripheral vision; located outside of the fovea

schedules of reinforcement

(5 kinds; which are most/least effective?)

Continual = reward every time; least effective

Intermittent:

Fixed ratio = reward given after a fixed # of times

Variable ratio =  a variable # of times

Fixed interval = reward given after a fixed time interval

Variable interval = a variable amount of time

sexual characteristics

(primary vs. secondary)

Primary - necessary for reproduction 

Secondary - traits that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system

Insomnia (difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, waking early in the morning)

Narcolepsy = falling asleep frequently during the day and immediately entering REM sleep

Sleep apnea = breathing dysfunction causes one to awake hundreds of times during the night

somatoform disorders

(major kinds)

somatosensory cortex

(used for what sense?)

stages of learning

(acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, etc.)

Acquisition - formation of a new skill/cognition

Extinction - weakening/disappearance of what is learned

Spontaneous Recovery - reappearance of an extinguished response after of period of time

systematic desensitization

(aka: a kind of counterconditioning)

thalamus

(and what doesn't get routed through it)

validity

(different kinds)

If a test tests what it is meant to test, it is valid.

Content - a test represents what has been taught

Criterion-Related - a test result is compared to another similar test

Construct - if an abstract quality (ie: creativity) is being tested, a variety of related variables are tested to prove a theory

visual cliff

Wernicke's aphasia

(aphasia = lack of ability)

Wilhelm Wundt

(structuralism)

William James

(functionalism)

Yerkes/Dodson Arousal Law

(Inverted-U Hypothesis)

Zajonc's "Mere Exposure Effect"