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| protects against assaults on the body |
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| include microorganisms: protozoans, bacteria, and viruses |
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| include abnormal cells tha reproduce and form tumors that may become cancerous and spread |
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| is continually at work patrolling and protecting the body |
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| are unique molecules recognized by the immune system |
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| molecules on the surface of cells that are unique to an individual, thus identifying the cell as “self” to the immune system |
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| molecules on the surface of foreign or abnormal cells or particles that identify the particle as “non-self” to the immune system |
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| the ability of the immune system to attack abnormal or foreign cells but spare normal cells |
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| innate and adaptive immunity |
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| Two major categories of immune mechanisms |
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| provides a general, nonspecific defense against anything that is not “self” |
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| acts as a specific defense against specific threatening agents |
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-epithelial barrier cells
-phagocytes (neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells)
-natural killer cells |
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| Primary cells for innate immunity: |
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| complement and interferon |
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| chemicals used in innate immunity: |
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| lymphocytes called T cells and B cells |
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| Primary types of cells for adaptive immunity: |
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| any of several kinds of chemicals released by cells to promote innate and adaptive immune responses (e.g., interleukin, interferon, leukotriene) |
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| genetic characteristics of an organism or species that defend against pathogens |
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| mechanical and chemical barriers |
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| skin and mucous membranes |
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| Internal environment of the body is protected by a barrier composed of the |
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| sebum, mucus, enzymes, and hydrochloric acid in the stomach |
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| Skin and mucous membranes provide additional immune mechanisms |
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| tissue damage elicits responses to counteract injury and promote normalcy |
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| histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, and related compounds |
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| Inflammation mediators include |
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| substances that attract white blood cells to the area in a process called chemotaxis |
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| heat, redness, pain, and swelling |
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| Characteristic signs of inflammation |
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| occurs from a bodywide inflammatory response |
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| abnormally high temperature triggered by inflammation mediators |
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| Triggered in systemic inflammatory response syndrome and events such as viral infections, tumors, allergies |
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| released from damaged tissues (endogenous) or introduced into the body (exogenous) promote prostaglandin (PG) production |
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| reset the hypothalamic “thermostat” to a higher temperature; aspirin and other cyclooxygenase inhibitors interfere with their production |
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| believed to increase immune function and inhibit pathogens |
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| ingestion and destruction of microorganisms or other small particles by phagocytes |
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| phagocytes that ingest foreign particles, isolate protein segments (peptides), and display them as antigens on their surface to trigger an immune response when recognized by a specific (adaptive) immune cell |
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| chemical attraction of cells to the source of the chemical attractant |
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| process by which immune cells squeeze through the wall of a blood vessel to get to the site of injury or infection |
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| most numerous phagocyte; usually first to arrive at site of injury; migrates out of bloodstream during diapedesis; forms pus |
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| type of phagocytic antigen-presenting cell with long branches or extensions |
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| Examples are histiocytes in connective tissue, microglia in nervous system, and Kupffer cells in liver |
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| lymphocytes that kill tumor cells and cells infected by viruses |
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| target cell is killed if killer-inhibiting receptor on NK cell does not bind to a proper major histocompatibility complex surface protein |
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| Method of recognizing abnormal or non-self cells-- |
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| lysing cells by damaging plasma membranes |
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| NK method of killing cells-- |
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| protein synthesized and released into circulation by certain cells if invaded by viruses to signal other nearby cells to enter a protective antiviral state |
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| group of enzymes that produce a cascade of reactions resulting in a variety of immune responses |
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| Lyse cells when activated by either adaptive or innate mechanisms |
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| mark cells for destruction by phagocytes |
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| pattern recognition receptors in the membranes of host cells; when triggered, stimulate many different kinds of innate immune responses |
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| part of the third line of defense consisting of lymphocytes—two different classes of a type of white blood cell |
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| B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells) |
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| Two classes of lymphocytes |
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| Subsets of lymphocytes are defined by the ____ that the cells carry |
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| flow through the bloodstream, become distributed in tissues, and return to the bloodstream in a continuous recirculation |
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| antibody-mediated immunity (humoral immunity); produce antibodies that attack pathogens |
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| attack pathogens more directly; classified as cell-mediated immunity (cellular immunity) |
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| have protein markers on their surfaces that are named by the CD system |
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| a specific antigen and activating chemicals |
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| Activation of lymphocytes requires two stimuli: |
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| in bone marrow, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and spleen |
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| Lymphocytes are densest where they develop— |
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-Pre–B cells develop by a few months of age
-The second stage occurs in lymph nodes and spleen—activation of a naive B cell after it binds to a specific antigen |
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| B cells develop in two stages: |
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| serve as ancestors to antibody-secreting plasma cells |
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| proteins (immunoglobulins) secreted by activated B cell |
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| an antibody molecule consists of two heavy and two light polypeptide chains; each molecule has two antigen-binding sites and two complement-binding sites |
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| Structure of antibody molecules: |
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bone marrow, lymph nodes, and spleen;
variable |
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| infants are born with different clones of B cells in ___, ___, and ___; cells of the clone synthesize a specific antibody with a sequence of amino acids in its ___ region that differs from the sequence synthesized by other clones |
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| immunoglobulins M, G, A, E, and D |
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| Five classes of antibodies-- |
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| antibody that naive B cells synthesize and insert into their own plasma membranes; the predominant class produced after initial contact with an antigen |
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| makes up 75% of antibodies in the blood; predominant antibody of the secondary antibody response |
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| major class of antibody in mucous membranes, in saliva and tears |
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| small amount; produces harmful effects such as allergies |
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| small amount in blood; precise function unknown |
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| Antibody molecules produce antibody-mediated immunity (humoral immunity) within |
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| resist disease first by recognizing foreign or abnormal substances |
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| bind to an antibody molecule’s antigen-binding sites, which forms an antigen-antibody complex that may have several effects |
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| a component of blood plasma consisting of several protein compounds |
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| kills foreign cells by cytolysis or apoptosis |
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| causes vasodilation, enhances phagocytosis, and has other functions |
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| Complement activity can also be initiated by |
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| Formation by innate immunity is called the |
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| activated without antigen stimulation, produces full complement effect by binding to bacteria or viruses in presence of properdin |
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| Primary response (antibody mediated immunity) |
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| initial encounter with a specific antigen triggers the formation and release of specific antibodies that reaches its peak in a few days |
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| a later encounter with the same antigen triggers a much quicker response; B memory cells rapidly divide, producing more plasma cells and thus more antibodies |
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-The body contains many diverse clones of cells, each committed by its genes to synthesize a different antibody
-When an antigen enters the body, it selects the clone whose cells synthesize its antibody and stimulates them to proliferate and create more antibody
-The clones selected by antigens consist of lymphocytes and are selected by the shape of antigen receptors on the lymphocyte’s plasma membrane |
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| What is the Clonal selection theory? |
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| lymphocytes that go through the thymus gland before migrating to the lymph nodes and spleen |
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| Pre–T cells develop into ___ while in the thymus |
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| Thymocytes stream into the blood and are carried to the T cell–dependent zones in the __ and the __ |
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| T cells display ___ on their surface membranes that are similar to antibodies |
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| antigen (presented by an antigen-presenting complex) binds to its receptors (at an immunological synapse), causing the T cell to divide repeatedly to form a clone of identical T cells |
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| A T cell is activated when an |
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| effector T cells and memory T cells |
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| Cells of the clone differentiate into |
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| go to the site where the antigen entered, bind to antigens, and begin their attack |
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| Cytotoxic T cells: T cells release ___ to kill cells |
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| regulate the function of B cells, T cells, phagocytes, and other leukocytes |
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| regulatory T cells that suppress lymphocyte function, thus regulating immunity and promoting self-tolerance |
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| function to produce cell-mediated immunity and help regulate adaptive immunity in general |
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| Adaptive/acquired immunity |
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| resistance developed after birth; two types: natural and artificial |
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| results from nondeliberate exposure to antigens |
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| results from deliberate exposure to antigens, called immunization |
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| Natural and artificial immunity may be active or passive |
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| Natural and artificial immunity may be x |
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| when immune system responds to a harmful agent regardless of whether it is natural or artificial; lasts longer |
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| immunity developed in another individual is transferred to an individual who was not previously immune; temporary but provides immediate protection |
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| specific immunity targeting specific antigens |
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| antibody-mediated (humoral) immunity |
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| cell-mediated (cellular) immunity |
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-Recognition of antigen
-Activation of lymphocytes
-Effector phase (immune attack)
-Decline of antigen causes lymphocyte death (homeostatic balance)
-Memory cells remain for later response if needed |
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| Adaptive immunity occurs in a series of stages: |
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| work together in a coordinated system of adaptive immunity |
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| nervous and endocrine systems |
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| Immune system regulated to some degree by |
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| blood cells, skin cells, mucosal cells, brain cells, liver cells, and other types of cells and their secretions |
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| Agents of the immune system include |
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