Definition: dependent clauses that provide background information or "set the stage" for the main part of the sentence, the independent clause.

Example: 

-I forgot to eat breakfast. My stomach started hurting.

--Because I had forgotten to eat breakfast, my stomach began to hurt.

**start with adverbs like after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, until, when, etc.**

Definition: A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle

Example: Tripping over his shoelaces, Joe hurried to the bus (joe is modified with participle phrase)

-Maya forgot to delete the text messages from her secret boyfriend. This evidence was discovered by her mom.

--Having forgotten to delete her text messages, Maya left evidence that was discovered by her mom. (Maya is modified with participle phrase)

Definition: used when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words, or when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc.) . Joining two independent clauses this way implies that the two clauses are related and/or equal, or that one restates the other. Also use semicolons in lists where individual items already require commas.

Example: 

--Stella wants to dive off of a waterfall; however, the best one is too far away.

-- I have lived in five places so far; my favorites were Boulder, Colorado; Louisville, Kentucky; and San Diego, California.

Definition: Coordinating conjunctions are used to join independent clauses to make compound sentences, and subordinating conjunctions are used to join independent clauses to make complex sentences. Two independent clauses can be joined in either way, depending on the dsired message.

**coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet**

**subordinating conjunctions:  after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, rather than, since, that, though, unless, etc.**

Example: 

--Grace always ordered the Pad Thai, but tonight it was all sold out

--Even though Lucy did not feel well, she decided to join us for dinner.

Definition: Set off within or as if within parentheses; qualifying or explanatory information.  They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas.

Example: The teacher began to address the students (that is, the ones still present) to find out what had gone wrong.

Definition:  In a loose sentence the main idea comes first, and less important ideas follow. In the periodic sentence, the main idea comes at the end of the sentence.

Example: 

loose: The bakery was finally opened after three years of hard work, determination, and personal investment.

periodic: After three years of hard work, determination, and personal investment, the bakery was finally opened. 

Definition: Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.

2) Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.

Example:

--When struggling to come up with example sentences- those that will assist you in understanding the topic- it is helpful to read the material again.

-- To some, her actions seems unnecessary- almost counterproductive

2) My cousins- Alex, Lucas, and Alyssa- came to visit us during summer vacation, bringing many interesting games with them.

Definition: Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause. Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or other idea directly related to the independent clause.

Example: 

--I brought three important aspects of the program to the table that day: funding, effective daily planning, and accomplishing the long-term goal.

-- Charles knew what kind of person he wished to be: a responsible one.

--All hope was lost when the last Sioux tribe was defeated: "A people's dream died... It was a beautiful dream... the nation's hoop is broken and scattered."

Definition: words which replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. 

Example

--singular:  another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something

--plural: both, few, many, others, several

--both: all, any, more, most, none, some

Definition: using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."

-The -ing form: singing, acting, dancing 

-The infinitive form: to sing, to act, to dance

Examples:

--parallel: I enjoy reading, hiking, and sewing.

-not parallel: I enjoy reading, to hike, and to sew.

Definition:  A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept. A dangling modifier occurs when the subject of the modifier is unclear. Most dangling modifiers occur at the beginning of sentences, but they can also occur at the end. Misplaced modifiers occur when the subject of the modifier is unclear because the modifier is poorly placed. 

Examples:

incorrect --Trying to carry too many things at once, the dishes crashed to the floor.

correct --Trying to carry too many things at once, I dropped the dishes and they crashed to the floor.

incorrect --The porch was painted the wrong color on the house.

correct -- The porch on the house was painted the wrong color.

**avoid misplaced or dangling modifiers by placing the modifier as close to the subject as possible**

Definition:

--Active voice: the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb. Active voice is used for most non-scientific writing. Using active voice keeps your meaning clear for readers, and prevents the sentences from becoming too complicated or wordy. Too much use of passive voice can cloud the meaning of your sentences.

--Passive voice: the subject is acted upon; he or she receives the action expressed by the verb. 

Examples:

--Helena yelled at her. vs. She was yelled at by Helena.

--The test was administered by my english teacher. vs. My English teacher administered the test.

Definition:

Abstract Language-- refers to things that are intangible, that are perceived not through the senses but the mind.

Concrete Language-- refers to things perceived through the senses that are tangible.

Examples:

abstract-- love (all emotion), truth, morals, education, ideas

concrete--hand, book, cloth, tree