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Definition
| anything that has mass and occupies space |
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Definition
simple form of matter; a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more different substances
26 present in the human body
11 major ones, 4 of which (C,H,O,N) make up 96% of the human body |
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Definition
| atoms of two or more elements joined to form chemical combinations |
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Definition
| concept proposed by the English chemist John Dalton |
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| Protons, Neutrons, Electrons |
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Definition
| atoms contain several different kinds of subatomic particles; the most important are |
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Definition
| positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus |
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Definition
| neutral subatomic particles found in the nucleus |
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| negatively charged subatomic particles found in the electron cloud |
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Definition
-Number of protons in an atom’s nucleus
-critically important; identifies the kind of element |
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Definition
Mass of a single atom
Equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus |
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Definition
- Total number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons in the nucleus (in a stable atom)
- Electrons form a “cloud” around the nucleus |
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Definition
| a model resembling planets revolving around the sun; useful in visualizing the structure of atoms |
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Definition
-Exhibits electrons in concentric circles, showing relative distances of the electrons from the nucleus
-Each ring or shell represents a specific energy level and can hold only a certain number of electrons |
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| Whether an atom is chemically stable |
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Definition
| In the Bohr Model, Number and arrangement of electrons determine |
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Definition
| An atom with eight electrons, or four pairs, in the outermost energy level is |
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Definition
| An atom without a full outermost energy level is |
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| atoms with fewer than eight or more than eight electrons in the outer energy level will attempt to lose, gain, or share electrons with other atoms to achieve stability |
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Definition
-contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
-have the same atomic number and therefore the same basic chemical properties as any other atom of the same element, but they have a different atomic weight |
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| Radioactive Isotope (radioisotope) |
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Definition
| an unstable isotope that undergoes nuclear breakdown and emits nuclear particles and radiation |
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Definition
| interaction between two or more atoms that occurs as a result of activity between electrons in their outermost energy levels |
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Definition
| two or more atoms joined together |
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Definition
| consists of molecules formed by atoms of two or more elements |
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| Ionic, or electrovalent, bond |
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Definition
| formed by transfer of electrons; strong electrostatic force that binds positively and negatively charged ions together |
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Definition
| formed by sharing electron pairs between atoms |
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Definition
-Much weaker than ionic or covalent bonds
-Results from unequal charge distribution on molecules |
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Definition
-Form when electrons are unequally shared
-Example: water molecule
-Polar molecules have regions with partial electrical charges resulting from unequal sharing of electrons among atoms |
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Definition
| Other weak attractions attract molecules to each other through differences in (not hydrogen bonds!) |
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Definition
| Involve the formation or breaking of chemical bonds |
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Term
Synthesis reaction
Decomposition reaction
Exchange reaction
Reverse reaction |
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Definition
| Three basic types of chemical reactions are involved in physiology: |
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Definition
| combination of two or more substances to form a more complex substance; formation of new chemical bonds: A+B=AB |
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Definition
| breakdown of a substance into two or more simpler substances; breaking of chemical bonds: AB=A + B |
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Definition
| decomposition of two substances and, in exchange, synthesis of two new compounds from them: AB + CD=AD + CB |
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Definition
| all the chemical reactions that occur in body cells |
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| Chemical reactions that break down complex compounds into simpler ones and release energy; hydrolysis is a common catabolic reaction |
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| Carbon dioxide, Water, and other waste products |
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Definition
| Ultimately, the end products of catabolism are |
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Term
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Definition
| In catabolism, More than half the energy released is transferred to _____, which is then used to perform cellular work |
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Definition
-Chemical reactions that join simple molecules together to form more complex molecules
-Chemical reaction responsible is dehydration synthesis |
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Definition
| few have carbon atoms and none have C–C or C–H bonds |
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Term
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Definition
Have at least one carbon atom and at least one C–C or C–H bond in each molecule
Often have functional groups attached to the carbon-containing core of the molecule |
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Definition
| The body’s most abundant and important compound |
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Definition
| allows water to act as an effective solvent; ionizes substances in solution |
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Definition
| Properties of water: ___ allows transportation of essential materials throughout the body |
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Definition
| water can lose and gain large amounts of heat with little change in its own temperature; enables the body to maintain a relatively constant temperature |
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Term
| High heat of vaporization |
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Definition
| water requires the absorption of significant amounts of heat to change it from a liquid to a gas; allows the body to dissipate excess heat |
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Term
| Oxygen and carbon dioxide |
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Definition
| closely related to cellular respiration |
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Definition
| required to complete decomposition reactions necessary for the release of energy in the body |
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Definition
| produced as a waste product and helps maintain the appropriate acid-base balance in the body |
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Definition
-Large group of inorganic compounds that includes acids, bases, and salts
-Substances that dissociate in solution to form ions |
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Term
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Definition
| Positively charged ions are ____; negatively charged ions are ____ |
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Definition
| common and important chemical substances that are chemical opposites |
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Definition
-Any substance that releases a hydrogen ion (H+) when in solution; “proton donor”
-Level depends on the number of H+ a particular acid will release |
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Definition
-Electrolytes that dissociate to yield hydroxide ions (OH) or other electrolytes that combine with H+
-Described as “proton acceptors” |
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Definition
| assigns a value to measures of acidity and alkalinity |
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Definition
-Maintain the constancy of pH
-Minimize changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH
-Act as a “reservoir” for hydrogen ions |
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Definition
-Compound that results from chemical interaction of an acid and a base
-Formation reaction with water is called a neutralization reaction |
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Definition
| organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; commonly called sugars and starches |
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Definition
| simple sugars with short carbon chains; those with six carbons are hexoses (e.g., glucose); those with five are pentoses (e.g., ribose, deoxyribose) |
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Term
| Disaccharides and polysaccharides |
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Definition
| two (di-) or more (poly-) simple sugars bonded together through a synthesis reacti |
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Definition
-Water-insoluble organic molecules that are critically important biological compounds
Major roles:
-Energy source
-Structural role
-Integral parts of cell membranes |
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Definition
| Most abundant lipids and most concentrated source of energy |
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Term
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Definition
| Building blocks of triglycerides are ___(the same for each fat molecule) and ___(different for each fat and determine the chemical nature) |
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Term
| saturated fatty acid (all available bonds are filled) and unsaturated fatty acid (has one or more double bonds) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| are formed by dehydration synthesis |
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Definition
| Fat compounds similar to triglyceride |
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Definition
| may form double layers called bilayers that make up cell membranes |
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Definition
-Main component is steroid nucleus
-Involved in many structural and functional roles |
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Definition
-Commonly called tissue hormones; produced by cell membranes throughout the body
-Effects are many and varied; however, they are released in response to a specific stimulus and are then inactivated |
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Definition
-Most abundant organic compounds
-Chainlike polymers |
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Definition
| building blocks of proteins |
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Definition
| eight amino acids that cannot be produced by the human body |
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Definition
| 12 amino acids that can be produced from molecules available in the human body |
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Term
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Definition
| consist of a carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain |
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Definition
| highly organized and show a definite relation between structure and function |
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Term
| Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary |
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Definition
| Protein organization is defined by four levels, what are they? |
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Term
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Definition
| the number, kind, and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain |
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Term
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Definition
| polypeptide is coiled or bent into pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonds |
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Term
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Definition
| a secondary structure can be further twisted and converted to a globular shape; the coils touch in many places and are “welded” by covalent and hydrogen bonds |
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Definition
| highest level of organization; occurs when protein contains more than one polypeptide chain |
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Term
| shape of protein molecules determines their function |
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Definition
| Importance of protein shape-- |
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Term
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Definition
| Final, functional shape of the protein molecule is called its |
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Term
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Definition
| Structural proteins form the |
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Definition
| cause chemical changes in the molecules |
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Term
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Definition
| ___ proteins have lost their shape and therefore their function |
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Term
| pH, temperature, radiation, and other chemicals |
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Definition
| Proteins can be denatured by changes in |
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Term
| renatured and function normally |
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Definition
| If the chemical environment is restored, proteins may be |
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Term
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Definition
| Composed of deoxyribonucleotides: structural units consist of the pentose sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base (cytosine, thymine, guanine, or adenine) |
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Term
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Definition
| consists of two long chains of deoxyribonucleotides coiled into a double-helix shape |
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Term
| Specific sequence of more than 100 million base pairs |
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Definition
| constitutes one human DNA molecule; all DNA molecules in one individual are identical and different from those of all other individuals |
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Term
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Definition
-Composed of the pentose sugar (ribose), phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
-Nitrogenous bases are adenine, uracil, guanine, or cytosine (uracil replaces thymine |
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Term
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Definition
| Some RNA molecules are ___ and act as enzymes (ribozymes) or silence gene expression (RNA interference) |
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Term
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Definition
Composed of:
-Adenosine
-Ribose, a pentose sugar
-Adenine, a nitrogen-containing molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| is used to do the body’s work |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| creatine phosphate or ADP |
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Definition
| If ATP is depleted during prolonged exercise, ___ or ___ can be used for energy |
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Term
| Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide |
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Definition
| Used as coenzymes to transfer energy-carrying molecules from one chemical pathway to another |
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Term
| Cyclic adenosine monophosphate |
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Definition
Made from ATP by removing two phosphate groups to form a monophosphate
Used as an intracellular signal |
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Term
| organic molecules: combined forms |
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Definition
-Large molecules can be joined together to form even larger molecules
-Gives the molecules a completely different function |
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Term
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Definition
Names of combined molecules identify what they are made of:
-__ tells which component is dominant
-__ is the component found in a lesser amount |
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Term
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Definition
Also called composite cell
Vary in size; all are microscopic
Vary in structure and function |
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Term
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Definition
| separates the cell from its surrounding environment; outer boundary of cell |
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Definition
| thick, gel-like substance inside the cell composed of numerous organelles suspended in watery cytosol; each type of organelle is suited to perform particular functions |
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Definition
| large membranous structure near the center of the cell |
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Definition
| sacs and canals made of the same material as the plasma membrane |
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Definition
| theory explaining how cell membranes are constructed |
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Term
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Definition
| Molecules of the cell membrane are arranged in a |
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Term
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Definition
| The mosaic of molecules is ___; that is, the molecules are able to float around slowly |
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Term
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Definition
| Groupings of membrane molecules form ____that float as a unit in the membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| may pinch inward to bring material into the cell or organelle |
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Term
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Definition
| are scattered among the phospholipids to allow the membrane to function properly at body temperature |
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Term
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Definition
| Some membrane proteins have carbohydrates attached to them and, as a result, form _____that act as identification markers |
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Definition
| Some membrane proteins are receptors that react to specific chemicals, sometimes permitting a process called |
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Definition
| made of microscopic filaments or other nonmembranous materials |
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Definition
| Made of membranous, walled canals and flat, curving sacs arranged in parallel rows throughout the cytoplasm; extend from the plasma membrane to the nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 types of Endoplasmic reticulum |
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Term
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Definition
-Ribosomes dot the outer surface of the membranous walls
-Ribosomes synthesize proteins, which move toward the Golgi apparatus and then eventually leave the cell
-Function in protein synthesis and intracellular transportation |
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Definition
-No ribosomes border the membranous wall
-Functions are less well established and probably more varied |
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Definition
-Synthesizes certain lipids and carbohydrates and creates membranes for use throughout the cell
-Removes and stores calcium ions from the cell’s interior |
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Definition
-Many are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and many lie free, scattered throughout the cytoplasm
-Each a nonmembranous structure made of two pieces, a large subunit and a small subunit; each subunit is composed of rRNA and protein |
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Term
1. Ribosomes in ER
2. Free ribosomes |
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Definition
1. make proteins for “export,” or to be embedded in the plasma membrane
2. make proteins for the cell’s domestic use |
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Term
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Definition
-Membranous organelle consisting of cisternae stacked on one another and located near the nucleus
-Processes protein molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
-Made of microscopic membranous sacs that have “pinched off” from Golgi apparatus
-The cell’s own digestive system; enzymes digest the protein structures of defective cell parts, including plasma membrane proteins, and particles that have become trapped in the cell |
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Term
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Definition
-Hollow protein cylinders found throughout the cytoplasm
-Break down abnormal or misfolded proteins and normal proteins no longer needed by the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| Proteasomes break down protein molecules one at a time by tagging each one with a chain of ____ molecules, unfolding the protein as it enters the proteasome, and then breaking apart peptide bonds |
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Definition
-Small membranous sacs containing enzymes that detoxify harmful substances that enter the cells
-Often seen in kidney and liver cells |
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Term
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Definition
-Composed of microscopic sacs; wall composed of inner and outer membranes separated by fluid; thousands of particles make up enzyme molecules attached to both membranes
-The “power plants” of cells; enzymes catalyze series of oxidation reactions that provide most of a cell’s energy supply |
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Definition
| Consists of a nuclear envelope (made of two membranes, each with essentially the same molecular structure as the plasma membrane) surrounding nucleoplasm |
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Definition
Contains DNA (heredity molecules), which appear as:
Chromatin threads or granules in nondividing cells
Chromosomes in early stages of cell division |
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Definition
| The cell’s internal supporting framework; made of rigid, rodlike pieces that provide support and allow movement and mechanisms that can move the cell or its parts |
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Term
| endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and “free” ribosomes |
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Definition
| cytoskeleton fibers appear to support the |
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Term
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Definition
-Smallest cell fibers
-Serve as “cellular muscles”
-Made of thin, twisted strands of protein molecules that lie parallel to the long axis of the cell
-Can slide past each other and cause shortening of the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| twisted protein strands slightly thicker than microfilaments; form much of the supporting framework in many types of cells |
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Definition
-Tiny, hollow tubes that are the thickest of the cell fibers
-Made of protein subunits arranged in a spiral fashion
-Function to move things around inside the cell |
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Term
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Definition
-Area of the cytoplasm near the nucleus that coordinates the building and breaking apart of microtubules in the cell
-Plays an important role during cell division |
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Term
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Definition
| General location of the centrosome is identified by the |
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Term
| dynein, myosin, and kinesin |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| can pull larger structures along microtubules and microfilaments as if along a track, providing intracellular transport and movements of the entire cell |
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Definition
| found in epithelial cells that line the intestines and other areas where absorption is important; help increase the surface area manyfold |
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Definition
| cell processes that have cylinders made of microtubules and molecular motors at their core |
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Definition
-Shorter and more numerous
-Have coordinated oarlike movements that brush material past the cell’s surface |
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Definition
-Found only on human sperm cells
-Move with a tail-like movement that propels the sperm cell forward |
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Term
Desmosomes
Gap Junction
Tight Junction |
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Definition
| 3 types of direct cell connections |
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Term
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Definition
Fibers on the outer surface interlock with each other; anchored internally by intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton
2 types: Spot and Belt |
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Term
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Definition
membrane channels of adjacent plasma membranes adhere to each other; have two effects:
1. form tunnels
2. fuse 2 plasma membranes |
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Term
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Definition
-Occur in cells that are joined by “collars” of tightly fused material
-Molecules cannot permeate
-Occur in the lining of the intestines and other parts of the body where controlling what gets through a sheet of cells is important |
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Term
| Passive transport processes |
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Definition
| do not require any energy expenditure of the cell membrane |
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Term
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Definition
-A passive process
-Molecules spread through the membranes
-Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration down a concentration gradient
-Leads to state of equilibrium |
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Term
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Definition
-Molecules cross the phospholipid bilayer
-Solutes permeate the membrane; therefore the membrane is called permeable |
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Term
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Definition
| Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane; limits diffusion of at least some solute particles |
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Term
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Definition
| Water pressure that develops as a result of osmosis is called |
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Term
| Potential osmotic pressure |
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Definition
| the maximal pressure that could develop in a solution when it is separated from pure water by a selectively permeable membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| when two fluids have the same potential osmotic pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| cells placed in solutions that are ______ to intracellular fluid always shrivel as water flows out of them |
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Term
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Definition
| cells placed in a ______ solution may swell as water flows into them |
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Term
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Definition
| results in gain of volume on one side of the membrane and loss of volume on the other side of the membrane |
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Term
| Facilitate diffusion (mediated passive transport) |
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Definition
-A special kind of diffusion in which movement of molecules is made more efficient by the action of transporters embedded in a cell membrane
-Transports substances down a concentration gradient
-Energy required comes from the collision energy of the solute |
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Term
| Channel-mediated passive transport |
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Definition
-Allow only one type of solute to pass through
-Gated may be open or closed (or inactive); may be triggered by any of a variety of stimuli
-Allow membranes to be selectively permeable |
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Term
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Definition
| are water channels that permit rapid osmosis |
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Term
| Carrier-mediate passive transport |
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Definition
-Carriers attract and bind to the solute, change shape, and release the solute on the other side of the carrier
-Carriers are usually reversible depending on the direction of the concentration gradient |
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Term
| Move substances down a concentration gradient, thus maintaining equilibrium and homeostatic balance |
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Definition
| role of passive transport process |
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Term
| Active transport processes |
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Definition
| require the expenditure of metabolic energy by the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| membrane transporters that move a substance against their concentration gradient; opposite of diffusion |
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Term
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Definition
| allows substances to enter or leave the interior of a cell without moving through its plasma membrane |
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Term
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Definition
the plasma membrane “traps” some extracellular material and brings it into the cell in a vesicle
Two basic types:
1. phagocytosis
2. pinocytosis |
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Term
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Definition
| large particles are engulfed by the plasma membrane and enter the cell in vesicles; the vesicles fuse with lysosomes, which digest the particles |
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Term
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Definition
| fluid and the substances dissolved in it enter the cell |
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Term
| receptor-mediated endocytosis |
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Definition
| membrane receptor molecules recognize substances to be brought into the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| Process by which large molecules, notably proteins, can leave the cell even though they are too large to move out through the plasma membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| also provides a way for new material to be added to the plasma membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| Pumps concentrated substances on one side of membrane, such as when storing an ion inside an organelle |
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Term
| Vesicle-mediated (endo/exocytosis) |
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Definition
| move large volumes of substances at once, such as in secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters |
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Term
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Definition
-chemical catalysts that reduce the activation energy needed for a reaction
-regulate cell metabolism |
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Term
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Definition
| where the enzyme molecule fits the substrate molecule—the lock-and-key model |
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Term
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Definition
| usually have an -ase ending, with the first part of the word signifying the substrate or the type of reaction catalyzed |
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Term
| oxidation-reduction enzymes |
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Definition
| known as oxidases, hydrogenases, and dehydrogenases; energy release depends on these enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
| hydrolases; digestive enzymes belong to this group |
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Term
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Definition
| phosphorylases or phosphatases; add or remove phosphate groups |
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Term
| carboxylases or decarboxylases |
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Definition
| Enzymes that add or remove carbon dioxide |
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Term
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Definition
| Enzymes that rearrange atoms within a molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| Enzymes regulate cell functions by regulating |
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Term
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Definition
| Various chemical and physical agents known as ____ affect enzyme action by changing the shape of the enzyme molecule |
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Term
-Temperature
-Hydrogen ion (H+) concentration (pH)
-Ionizing radiation
-Cofactors
-End products of certain metabolic pathways |
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Definition
| General functions of enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
| Many enzymes are first synthesized as |
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Term
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Definition
| the pathway by which glucose is broken down to yield its stored energy; an important example of cell catabolism |
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Term
Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle
Electron transport system |
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Definition
| Cellular respiration has three pathways that are chemically linked: |
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Term
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Definition
| Pathway in which glucose is broken apart into two pyruvic acid molecules to yield a small amount of energy (which is transferred to adenosine triphosphate [ATP] and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide [NADH]) |
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Term
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Definition
-Includes many chemical steps (reactions that follow one another), each regulated by specific enzymes
-Is anaerobic (requires no oxygen)
-Occurs within cytosol (outside the mitochondria) |
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Term
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Definition
| Pyruvic acid (from glycolysis) is converted into acetyl coenzyme A (CoA) and enters the _____ cycle after losing carbon dioxide (CO2) and transferring some energy to NADH |
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Term
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Definition
| a repeating (cyclic) sequence of reactions that occurs inside the inner chamber of a mitochondrion; acetyl splits from CoA and is broken down to yield waste CO2 and energy (in the form of energized electrons), which is transferred to ATP, NADH, and reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2) |
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Term
| Electron transport system |
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Definition
| Energized electrons are carried by NADH and FADH2 from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to electron acceptors embedded in the cristae of the mitochondrion |
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Term
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Definition
| Electron transport chain: As electrons are shuttled along a chain of electron-accepting molecules in the cristae, their energy is used to pump accompanying ____ into the space between mitochondrial membranes |
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Term
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Definition
| Electron transport chain: ___ flow back into the inner chamber through pump molecules in the cristae, and their energy of movement is transferred to ATP |
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Term
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Definition
| Low-energy electrons coming off the ETS bind to oxygen and rejoin their protons to form |
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Term
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Definition
| is a central anabolic pathway in cells |
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Term
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Definition
| a segment of a DNA molecule that consists of approximately 1000 pairs of nucleotides and contains the code for synthesizing one RNA molecule, which then may be translated into one polypeptide |
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| mRNA, which is a transcript of a code for one polypeptide |
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| rRNA and tRNA, which are copies of a DNA gene but regulate processes rather than code for a polypeptide |
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| mRNA forms along a segment of one strand of DNA |
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| are ribosome-sized structures in the nucleus that splice mRNA transcripts |
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| tRNA’s anticodon with mRNA’s codon |
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| type of amino acid is determined by the fit of a specific __ |
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| As amino acids are brought into place, ____ join them, eventually producing an entire polypeptide chain |
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| can be inhibited by RNA interference (RNAi), which protects the cell against viral infection |
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| chaperone molecules and other enzymes in the cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus help polypeptides fold and then possibly combine into larger protein molecules or hybrid molecules |
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| All the proteins synthesized by a cell make up the cell’s ___ |
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| All the proteins synthesized in the whole body are called the __ |
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| Cell growth and reproduction |
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| are the most fundamental of all living functions and together constitute the cell life cycle |
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| depends on using genetic information in DNA to make the structural and functional proteins needed for cell survival |
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| ensures that genetic information is passed from one generation to the next |
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| a newly formed cell produces a variety of molecules and other structures necessary for growth by using the information contained in the genes of DNA molecules; this stage is known as |
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| production of cytoplasm occurs in which cell phase? |
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-The DNA strand uncoils and the strands come apart
-Along each separate strand a complementary strand forms
-The two new strands are called chromatids instead of chromosomes
-Chromatids are attached pairs, and the centromere is the name of their point of attachment |
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| what is the process of DNA base pairing? |
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Growth phase (G1)
DNA Synthesis phase (S)
Second growth phase (G2) |
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| The growth phase of the cell life cycle can be subdivided into t |
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| the process of organizing and distributing nuclear DNA during cell division has four distinct phases |
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1. After the cell has prepared for reproduction during interphase, the nuclear envelope falls apart as the chromatids coil up to form chromosomes joined at the centromere
2.As chromosomes form, the centriole pairs move toward the poles of the parent cell and spindle fibers are constructed between them
This phase is??? |
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1. Chromosomes move so that one chromatid of each chromosome faces its respective pole
2. Each chromatid attaches to a spindle fiber
This phase is??? |
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1. The centromere of each chromosome has split to form two chromosomes, each consisting of a single DNA molecule
2. Each chromosome is pulled toward the nearest pole to form two separate but identical pools of genetic information
This phase is??? |
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1. DNA returns to its original form and location within the cell
2. After completion, each daughter cell begins interphase to develop into a mature cell
This phase is?? |
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| Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) |
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| are activating enzymes that drive the cell through the phases of its life cycle |
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| are regulatory proteins that control the CDKs and “shift” them to start the next phase |
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| The processes of normal cell function result from the coordination dictated by the |
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