Term
| Explain the difference between a dependent and independent variable in an experiment. |
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Definition
| Dependent – What is measured in the experiment as a result of manipulating the independent variable. Independent – What is changed during the experiment. |
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Term
| Explain the value of a control in an experiment. |
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Definition
| A control is in an experiment to provide a comparison for the experimental group. |
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Term
| List the components that should be included when describing an experiment. |
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Definition
Hypothesis – Also null hypothesis
Experiment – Experimental & Control Group
Independent – |
Dependent -----|-Variables
Control ---------| |
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Term
| Explain what the terms hypothesis and theory mean in science. |
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Definition
Hypothesis – An idea that has not yet been tested through experimentation.
Theory – A “tried and true” hypothesis that explains how processes occur. |
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Term
| Explain what a controlled variable is. |
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Definition
| All the other Factors that might affect the experiment, and are controlled to prevent anomalous data. |
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Term
| Describe the 3 types of chemical bonds. |
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Definition
Ionic Bonds – Formed by two atoms of the opposite charge. Most common in salts.
Covalent Bonds – Two atoms sharing electrons Polar (unequal) or nonpolar. Single, Double, or triple bonds. Forms discrete molecules.
Hydrogen Bonding – Weak bonds created by hydrogen being attracted to objects of negative charge. |
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Term
| Describe the properties of water. |
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Definition
Life is mostly made of water.
Life evolved in water.
All chemical reactions in biology require water. Water is polar covalent, so it hydrogen bonds to itself. (Adhesion and cohesion result.) |
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Term
| What is the difference between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis? |
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Definition
| In dehydration synthesis, water is removed from the molecule being synthesized.In hydrolysis, water is added to a molecule, lysing it (the opposite of dehydration synthesis.) |
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Term
| Describe the structure of carbohydrates. |
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Definition
| Store Energy and act as building materials. Contain C-H bonds which hold energy. Monosaccharides from 3-6 carbons, and form chains or rings. Di- and Polysaccharides are monosaccharide polymers. Lactose, sucrose, and maltose are disaccharides. Cellulose and chitin are structure polysaccharides. Glycogen and starch are storage polysaccharides. |
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Term
| Describe the structure of ATP. |
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Definition
| An Adenosine molecule with three phosphates attached to it in a row. When the third phosphate is used, it becomes ADP and returns to the mitochondria to be “recharged.” |
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Term
| Discuss the levels of protein structure and the role of specific bonds at each level. |
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Definition
| Primary- specific amino acid sequence, Secondary- side groups=not the parts that form bonds. Alpha helix or beta pleated sheet. *motifs- two secondary, Tertiary- Ionic bonds with opp. charged side groups. Disulfide bonds lock areas together. 3Dshape, Quarternary- 2 or more polypepetide chains that are clustered together. each chain=subunit |
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Term
| Describe the allosteric regulation of an enzyme. |
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Definition
| Location of enzyme binding for noncompetitive inhibitors. On/Off switch between active and nonactive enzyme made |
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Term
| Explain the need for enzymes in living organisms. |
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Definition
| Biological Catalyst. Proteins that aid the association between substrates which are the molecules that will undergo reaction. |
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Term
| Give an example showing the relationship between structure and function in the digestive system. |
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Definition
| stomach- hold food. Small intestine- break down food. pancreas- secrete enzyme liver- process nutrients. |
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Term
| Explain the induced fit model of enzyme function. |
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Definition
| both enzyme and active site change shape so only a specific substrate bind to the enzyme. |
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Term
| Describe an adaptation that increases surface area in the digestive system. |
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Definition
| Lining of small intestine is folded into projections called villi which are covered by microvilli. Villi increase the surface area for absorption. |
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Term
| Explain the difference between the effect of enzymes of both endergonic and exergonic reactions. |
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Definition
| Endergonic: Requires an input of energy. Exergonic: Releases free energy. Enzymes lower activation energy required for reaction. |
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Term
| List and describe the function of all the enzymes of the digestive system. |
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Definition
| Amylase: breaks down starch → maltose. Pepsin: hydrolyzes proteins → polypeptides. Lactase, sucrase, maltase: turns disaccharides → monosaccharides. Peptidase: turns polypeptides → amino acids. Nucleases: turns DNA, RNA → sugar, bases. Trypsin, Chymotrypsin: turns proteins → peptides. Lipase: turns triglycerides → glycerol, fatty acids. DNase: DNA → nucleotides. RNase: RNA → nucleotides. |
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Term
| Explain how pH affects enzyme function. |
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Definition
| When pH level rises, the enzyme's bonds are weakened, changing its structure and disabling function. pH 6 to 8 is the optimum, except for stomach enzymes which function in acidic conditions (pH = 2). |
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Term
| What are the major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. |
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Definition
| Prokaryote: Bacteria, archaebacteria, unicellular, plasma membrane, cell wall made of peptidoglycan, no nucleus or cytoskeleton, single piece of DNA, no organelles. Eukaryote: Plant and animal cells, plasma membrane, cell wall only in plants, DNA in chromosomes, many organelles. |
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Term
| Explain how enzymes function. |
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Definition
| -Contain active sites on their surface where the substrate binds. -Exergonic reaction: stresses bonds, causing them to break. -Endergonic reaction: orientates molecules correctly. -Found in the cell’s cytoplasm, but can also be attached cell membranes and organelles.- Not all enzymes are proteins, evidence that RNA molecules are also a catalyst. |
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Term
| Describe the endosymbiotic theory. |
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Definition
| -Proposed by Lynn Margulis (1960). Proposed-- 1-Mitochondria are the result of endocytosis of aerobic bacteria 2-Chloroplasts are the result of endocytosis of photosynthetic bacteria 3-In both cases by large anaerobic bacteria which wouldn't otherwise be able to exist.4-This arrangement became a mutually beneficial relationship for both cells(symbiotic) |
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Term
| Explain how temperature affects enzyme function. |
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Definition
| -All enzymes have optimum temps.-In humans, 35C-40C, our body enzymes function in this range-Low temps-Can’t bend to fit substrate-High temps- Can’t maintain shape/denatures. |
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Term
| Describe the 4 types of cell signaling. |
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Definition
| 1-Direct Contact-Cells signal because they are close to each other.2-Paracrine Sig.-Cells release signal to extracellular fluid; received by neighboring cells.3-Endocrine Sig.- Released substance stays in extracellular fluid & travels the body(long lived).4- Synaptic Sig.- Communication between nerve cells at the synapses (brief unlike endocrine) |
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Term
| Explain how salinity affects enzyme function. |
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Definition
| Too much or too little salt can influence the hydrogen bonding that allows the enzyme to hold up its shape. |
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Term
| Describe the difference between an ion channel receptor and enzymatic receptor. |
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Definition
Ion Channel: multi-pass transmembrane proteins, ions pass through, used by neurotransmitters
Enzymatic Receptor: single-pass transmembrane proteins, acts as enzymes or linked to enzymes, receptor on outside, activity inside |
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Term
| Describe the function of a G protein-linked receptor. |
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Definition
| several-pass transmembrane protein, act on ion channels and enzymatic receptors indirectly, acts as mediator between signal on outside and cytoplasm, signal molecule binds to receptor, G-protein changes shape and bind to GTP, very short signal |
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Term
| Describe the 3 types of communication that occurs between cells as the result of direct contact. |
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Definition
Paracrine Signaling: signal to extracellular fluid, molecules taken up by neighboring cells are the only ones influenced
Endocrine Signaling: stays in extracellular fluid and travels through the body, longer lived hormones
Synaptic Signaling: between nerve cells at the end, neurotransmitters, very brief |
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Term
| Describe the control of the movement of molecules across the cell membrane. |
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Definition
| diffusion, from high concentration to low concentration |
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Term
| Describe the control of the movement of water across the cell membrane. |
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Definition
| osmosis, from high concentration to low concentration |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. |
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Term
| Explain how the protein gradient is used to build ATP in Cellular respiration |
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Definition
| ATP synthase uses the energy stored in the gradient of protons built up in the inner membrane of the mitochondria |
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Term
| Explain alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation |
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Definition
| In alcoholic fermentation, pyruvic acid is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide.Lactic acid fermentation is a biological process by which glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted into cellular energy and the metabolite lactate |
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Term
| Explain how ATP and NADPH are used to build sugars in the calvin cycle |
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Definition
| spends ATP as an energy source and consumes NADPH2 during Reduction. converts 3-phosphoglycerate made in Carbon Fixation to three-carbon carbohydrate |
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Term
| Describe the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration |
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Definition
| Photosynthesis takes the energy from sunlight and uses it to put together large sugar molecules from the raw ingredients CO2 and H2O. Cellular respiration occurs when organisms break down large sugar molecules to use the energy to do work and release the waste products CO2 and H2O |
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Term
| Describe the role of NADH and FADH2 in cellular respiration |
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Definition
| used during the electron transport chain to produce the bulk of the ATP that cellular respiration yields |
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Term
| Explain how the energy of organic compounds are converted to ATP |
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Definition
| Glucose, stored in the form of glycogen, can be converted into ATP by all cells containing mitochondria, which means nearly all of them. Muscles can even burn glycogen directly. |
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Term
| Describe the oxidation of pyruvate and the Krebs Cycle |
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Definition
| occurs in the mitochondria, converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA, produces 2 ATP, 8 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 6 CO2 per glucose molecule |
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Term
| Describe the role of oxygen in cellular respiration |
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Definition
| Oxygen is used in the final step in the electron transport chain by cytochrome c oxidase to accept the low-energy electrons that has been passed through the electron transport chain. Only oxygen is a strong enough oxidizing agent to accepts such low-energy electrons. Oxygen combine with a pair of electrons and two protons to form water, the waste product of cellular respiration. |
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Term
| describe the electron transport chain and explain how it functions to make ATP |
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Definition
| NADH passes H+ and energy to the ATP synthetase, where energy from the NADH and ATP synthetase makes ATP. O2 is the terminal electron acceptor and the transport chain is responsible for the proton gradient in the inner mitochondria membrane. protons turn the mechanism so that a P can be bound to ADP to make ATP. |
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Term
| describe glycolysis Describe the structure of the Chloroplast |
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Definition
| Glycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration. It occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen. Glucose → 2 pyruvate (stage 2) + 2 NADH (stage 4) + 4 ATP (2 net) + 2 H2O (waste) |
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Term
| Explain how a proton gradient is used to build ATP in photosynthesis |
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Definition
| .Inside chloroplasts are thylakoid membranes, which look like stacks of pancakes. These stacks of thylakoid membranes float in the stroma, the aqueous space inside the chloroplast. Clorophyll and accessory pigments are inside the thylakoid membrane. The stroma houses NADPH, ATP, and CO2. |
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Term
| Explain how sunlight is used to make ATP in photosynthesis |
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Definition
| Every time an electron passes a protein on the ETC, a proton (H+) is pumped in the lumen (inside thylakoid). The built up positive charge forces protons to diffuse out through ATP synthase, making ATP. |
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Term
| Explain how CO2 is used to make sugars |
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Definition
| In photosynthesis, sunlight hits the photosystems, which causes a chain of events which eject energized electrons, and use these energized electrons to create ATP in the electron transport chain. Water is split at the beginning of photosynthesis, releasing oxygen, and supplying the electrons. |
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Term
| Explain how carbon fixation differesin CAM and C4 plants |
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Definition
| CO2 gets converted to glucose in the Calvin cycle, in stroma. CO2 combines with RuBP to form unstable 6 carbon molecule, which breaks into 2 PGA. ATP and NADPH are added to create 2 mol. of PGAL. When several are produced, some combine to form glucose, others are reused in Calvin Cycle. It takes 6 turns of CC to make 1 glucose mol. |
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Term
| Explain how sunlight is used to make NADPH in photosynthesis |
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Definition
| In CAM plants, carbon fixation only occurs during the night. (all the electrons are energized and put into NADPH with the stomata closed during the day.) In C4 plants, there is no period between carbon fixation and photosynthesis. The process happens in different cells. |
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Term
| Explain how sunlight is used to make NADPH in photosynthesis |
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Definition
| NADPH is made in light reaction of photosynthesis. Light powers an electron through the ETC and combines with NADP+ to make NADPH. |
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Term
| Explain how water is used to make ATP in photosynthesis |
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Definition
| In photosynthesis, water is split into 2H+ + O, which releases oxygen and provides 2 electrons which are necessary for ATP to be created. |
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Term
| Describe the regulation of blood pressure |
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Definition
| 1-Antidiuretic Hormone:Secreted by pituitary gland; stimulates kidneys to retain water. 2-Aldosterone:When you’re dehydrated; causes kidneys to retain sodium and water. 3-Atrial Natriuretic Hormone:Promotes elimination of sodium and water;lowers blood pressure. 4- Nitric Oxide: Produced by endothelial cells: cause blood vessels to relax and dialate. |
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Term
| Describe the factors that affect blood pressure |
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Definition
| exercise, nutrition, alcohol, stress, smoking |
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Term
| How does cardiac conduction system work? |
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Definition
| 1-Sinoatrial Node- (AKA pacemaker); receives the cardiac impulses. 2-Atrioventricular Node:Receives impulse from SA Node & slows down the signal so that atria can finish contracting & emptying their blood into the ventricles before they can contract. 3-Bundle of His:Receives impulse from Atrioventricular. 4-Purkinje Fibers: Impulse received here causes ventricles to contract. |
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Term
| How do pressure differences cause inhaling and exhaling? |
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Definition
| pressure from the diaphragm causes our lungs inflate, thus we inhale and when the diaphragm deflates, it makes us exhale. |
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Term
| How is oxygen transported?How is carbon dioxide transported? |
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Definition
| O2-Most O2 entering pulmonary capillaries combines w/ hemoglobin = oxyhemoglobin. -At a normal partial pressure of O2 in lungs, hemoglobin quickly unloads much of its O2.CO2-Combines with water, forming carbonic acid.-As blood enters the pulmonary capillaries, most CO2 is in plasma as carbonic acid. |
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Term
| Describe counter current exchange and its advantages |
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Definition
| highly efficient, naturally occurring phenomenon of thermal or chemical transfer between fluid bodies. This process takes place through a conductive surface in the case of heat or a partially permeable membrane in the case of chemical exchange. |
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Term
| Describe the charge and ionic concentrations during a nerve impulse |
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Definition
| -All-or-none event, threshold is reached entirely or not at all.-Rapid movement of ions causes a change in charge(outside-neg./inside-pos.).-Stimulus triggers gated channel, sodium flows into the cytoplasm which lowers membrane potential making it easier to reach threshold. -Stimulation of potassium ion-gated channel causes a decrease in the membrane potential causing it to become hard for the threshold to be reached. |
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Term
| Describe a nervous system function that requires a conformation change of a protein |
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Definition
| The protein has a particular shape that has a high affinity to sodium ions so they can bind to it. When the ions fill the binding spots on the protein, the protein changes it shape to have a low affinity for sodium ions and, in turn, releases them, and now has a high affinity for potassium ions. |
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Term
| Describe how the structure of the nephron promotes its function |
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Definition
| Nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. Its chief function is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium salts by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. A nephron eliminates wastes from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulates blood pH. |
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Term
| Define negative and positive feedback via the urinary system. |
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Definition
| In positive feedback a change in the homeostatic condition is detected by receptors and the information is transmitted to the control centre. The control centre activates effectors which generate a responce which increases the stimulus further reinforcing the initial change. Therefore, positive feedback acts to reinforce or strengthen the stimulus or charge. |
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Term
| Explain how meiosis makes sexual reproduction prossible |
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Definition
| Produces gametes:sperm or egg unlike mitosis which produces somatic cells.-Gametes are produced so that fertilization is possible; resulting in a zygote.-Gametes are only produced in the germ-line cells(diploid) found in the reproductive organs that produce the gametes(haploid). |
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Term
| List the similarities of mitosis and meiosis |
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Definition
| both occur at the cellular level and create new cells by the separation of old cells. they both have no new gene combinations when each new cell splits, each new cell has same number of chromosomes, both have interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase |
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Term
| List the differences of mitosis and meiosis |
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Definition
| Mitosis occurs in all cells, Meiosis occurs only in cells of the germline. Mitosis results in two diploid cells, meiosis results in four haploid cells. Mitosis: homologous chromosomes do not pair.Meiosis: homologous chromosomes pair up. Mitosis: crossing over does not occur.Meiosis: crossing over occurs at points called chiasmata. |
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Term
| Explain how an organism's phenotyope is dependent on genetic s and enviroment |
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Definition
| Dominant phenotypes occur when there is at least one dominant allele. However, recessive phenotypes occur only when both alleles are recessive alleles. |
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Term
| Describe Mendel's second law of heredity |
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Definition
| Law of Independent Assortment - when two or more characteristics are inherited, individual hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production, giving different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together |
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Term
| Describe Mendel's first law of heredity |
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Definition
| Law of Segregation:-Two alleles for a character separate when gametes are formed.-Depicted in anaphase of meiosis1.-Example:This means that you can’t get two alleles for eye color from dad.-Best depicted by crossing to heterozygous individuals to form a monohybrid cross with a ratio of 3:1 in favor of dominant trait. |
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Term
| Give an example and explain a sex linked inheritance pattern |
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Definition
| -X chromosome is where many of the genes are found.-Y chromosome has very few genes.-If the sex-linked trait is due to a recessive mutation, a female will express the phenotype only if she has two copies.-If a female carries only one copy of the recessive gene, she is considered a carrier.-In Males, possessing only on X chromosome,either possess the mutation or they don’t(Ex:Color blind) |
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Term
| Give an example and explain a simple dominance and recessive inheritance pattern |
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Definition
Simple Dominance - one of the alleles is completely dominant to the other, so the heterozygote shows only the dominant phenotype (e.g. AA = red rose, aa = white rose, Aa = red rose).
Recessive Inheritance - both alleles are recessive, so the homozygous recessive shows the recessive phenotype (e.g. aa = white rose). |
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Term
| Given an example and explain an incomplete dominance inheritance patten |
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Definition
| -Neither allele is completely dominant or recessive in heterozygous individuals.-An intermediate phenotype is produced instead.-Since neither allele is dominant, genes are written using different capital letters.-Ex:Tomato size is based on incomplete dominance.Large+Small=Medium |
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Term
| Give an example and explain a co dominance ingheritance pattern |
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Definition
| Co-dominance Inheritance - Neither phenotype is recessive. The heterozygote individual expresses both phenotypes. (e.g. blood, A, B and O. AB is co-dominant) |
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Term
| Describe the vertebrae development stages: cleavage gastrulation neuralation and cell miugration |
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Definition
-Cleavage:post-fertilization cell division w/o growth.
-Gastrulation:Outer layer of cells =ectoderm:skin,mouth, rectum,& nervous system.Mesoderm=skeleton,skin dermis, muscles,reproductive, digest. system.-Neurulation: The 3rd germ layers begin their transformation. |
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Term
| Describe the role of Hox genes in development |
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Definition
| Hox Genes - regulate genes that in turn regulate large networks of other genes, also regulate effector genes that form the tissues, structures, and organs of each segment. |
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Term
| Describe the process of DNA repliction |
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Definition
| Initiation: Helicase breaks H bonds. Two strands separate to form replication bubbles for new strands. Elongation: RNA primer helps add DNA nucleotides. DNA polymerase III synthesizes new DNA in 5’ to 3’. Leading strand is continuous, lagging strand is in fragments. Termination: Stops when replisome reaches termination site. |
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Term
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Definition
| The mRNA produced by transcription is similar to a rough cut of a film that needs a bit of editing. A specialized nucleotide is added to the beggining of each mRNA molecule, which forms a cap. It helps the mRNA starand bind to a ribosome and prevents the strand from being broken down to fast.end of the mRNA molecule gets a string of A nucleotides, called the tail, that helps the mRNA molecule exit the nucleus. |
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Term
| Explain the consequence of a loss of regulation of mitosis |
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Definition
| Unregulated mitosis can lead to uncontrolled cell division (cancer). Linked to the p53 gene, which detects damaged DNA and halts cell division. |
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Term
| Describe the regulation of the cell cycle by cdks |
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Definition
| cyclins bind with Cdks to propel the cell through the next stage of the cell cycle as they are regulatory subunits. The cyclin part of the complex formed after binding with the cyclin-dependent protein kinase. Cyclin levels are very high especially when the cell is ready to progress to the next stage of the cell cycle, and after the cell is in the next stage, the cyclins are degraded until they are needed by the cell again. |
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Term
| Describe the checkpoints of the cell cyle |
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Definition
| G1/S: Depending on external factors, internal factors and whether DNA is damaged, cell decides whether to divide. G2/M: If DNA replication isn’t correct or damaged, cell stalls. Spindle: Ensures all chromosomes are attached to spindle. |
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Term
| Explain how mitosis maintains genetic consistency |
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Definition
| all offspring are exactly identical to the parent, unlike meiosis where homologous chromosomesare randomly dispersed between four daughter cells. |
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Term
| Describe the process of crossing over |
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Definition
| Crossing over occurs b/t non-sister chromatids during prophase I in meiosis. It happens at the chiasmata. Homologous chromosomes exchange chromosomal material, which increases genetic diversity. |
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Term
| Explain the relationship between the haploid and diplod stages of an animal life cycle |
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Definition
Diploid: Diploid cells contain two complete sets (2n) of chromosomes, Diploid cells reproduce by mitosis making daughter cells that are exact replicas,
Haploid: Haploid cells have half the number of chromosomes (n) as diploid |
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Term
| Describe the regulation of genes in bacteria through an inducicle operon |
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Definition
| An operon is a cluster of genes, promoter and operator which controls gene expression. It can be switched on and off by a repressor protein, which is part of a regulatory gene. Ex. when lactose is absent, a repressor binds to the operator, preventing the operon from encoding enzymes needed for metabolism of lactose. |
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Term
| Describe the regulation of genes in eukaryotes |
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Definition
| Most mechanisms that control gene expression do so by controlling transcription, the synthesis of mRNA. However there are other mechanisms for controlling the rate of protein synthesis that occur downstream (between transcription and translation). |
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Term
| How does gel electrophoresis work? |
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Definition
| DNA is separated by size as it moves through gel, under an electric charge. B/c DNA is negative, it moves from neg. to pos. The smaller strands will move faster. DNA must then be identified. |
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Term
| Describe the structure of DNA and RNA |
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Definition
| DNA -A nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all modern living organisms. RNA -A single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with the bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil bonded to the ribose. |
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Term
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Definition
| PCR is a process based on the ability of a DNA polymerase enzyme that can synthesize a complementary strand to a targeted segment of DNA in a test tube mixture of the four DNA bases. |
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Term
| Describe the 3 types of RNA |
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Definition
| mRNA (messenger RNA) - carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm tRNA (transfer RNA) - brings amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis rRNA (ribosomal RNA) - guides the translation of mRNA into a protein |
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Term
| Describe the process of transcription |
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Definition
| Transcription is the process of transferring information from a strand of DNA to a strand of RNA. It begins when a region of a two DNA strands unwinds and separates. The DNA regime acts a template strand, directing the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA that will carry instructions for protein synthesis. |
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Term
| Describe the process of translation |
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Definition
Initiation – RNA polymerase binds to a promoter on the DNA.
Elongation – the RNA chain grows in the 5' to 3' direction.
Termination – The RNA Polymerase reaches a “Stop” codon, and gets off of the DNA. |
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Term
| Explain what a gene translocation mutation is and describe its potential effects |
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Definition
| A gene translocation mutation is when a gene is moved to another chromosome, where it can cause problems like the gene not being expressed at all. |
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Term
| Explain what a gene inversion mutation is and describe its potential effects |
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Definition
| An Inversion mutation is a mutation that causes a reversal in the order of a segment of a chromosome within the chromosome, or a gene. |
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Term
| Explain what a deletion mutation is, describe its potential effects |
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Definition
| A deletion mutation is when a deletion is made in DNA, causing either a catastrophic frameshift, or the removal of an amino acid from a protein. Cystic Fibrosis and Tay-Sachs are caused by a frameshift deletion mutation. |
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Term
| Explain what a gene duplication mutation is and describe its potential effects |
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Definition
| process by which a chromosome or a portion of DNA is duplicated, resulting in an additional copy of a gene. Gene duplication is also referred to as chromosomal duplication or gene amplification. Duplication, which means to double, results in two identical genes. One or both of these genes may change over time through mutations to create two new different genes. |
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