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Definition
| factors besides spatial separation cause a species to diverge |
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| geographical isolation causes a species to diverge |
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| secretes melatonin and is thought to regulate circadian rhythm |
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Definition
| (pro)phages inject DNA into the bacteria that integrates with the host's DNA |
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| outermost layer of gastrula, forms the skin and nervous system |
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| forms muscle, skeleton, organs of the circulatory, excretory, and reproductive systems |
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| forms inner lining of digestive system organs |
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| primary energy storage molecule in plant cells |
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| major energy storage molecule in animal cells |
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| forms structure of fungus cells, exoskeletons of insects |
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Definition
| 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule |
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Definition
| has both polar and nonpolar regions (hydrophilic and hydrophobic) like phospholipids |
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| lipids, go straight into cells, include cholesterol and some hormones |
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Definition
| Pyramidines (T C) and Purines (A G), nitrogen base, 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group |
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Definition
| union of enzyme and cofactor |
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Definition
| crap moves around phospholipid bilayer |
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| carbohydrate coat that covers outside of the cell wall/membrane, consists of glycolipids and glycoproteins attached to it |
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Definition
| assemble amino acids into proteins, consist of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA? |
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Definition
| modify and package proteins and lipids into vesicles, which migrate and merge with the plasma membrane, releasing contents outside of cell |
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| vesicles from golgi body that contain digestive enzymes, do not occur in plant cells |
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| spindle apparatus, mitosis/meiosis |
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| made of the protein actin and involved in cell motility, found in muscle cells and phagocytes |
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Term
| Microtuble organizing centers (MTOC) |
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Definition
| higher concentration of solutes |
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Definition
| lower concentration of solutes |
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Definition
| diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane |
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Definition
| movement of water out of a cell that results in the collapse of the cell |
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Definition
| process of vesicles fusing with plasma membrane and releasing their contents outside the cell |
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Definition
| capture of a substance outside the cell by a cesicle |
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Definition
| dissolved substances enter cell |
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Definition
| Glucose -> 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP added, 4 ATP produced, 2 NADH produced, occurs in cytosol |
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| Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid cycle) |
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Definition
| Occurs in mitochondria, produces 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, CO2 from 1 pyruvate (1/2 glucose) |
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Term
| Oxidative Phosphorylation |
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Definition
| extracts ATP from NADH and FADH2, chain includes cytochromes, occurs in inner membrane, O2 is final electron acceptor, pH and electrical gradient formed |
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Term
| Intermembrane space (Mitochondria) |
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Definition
| H+ ions (protons) accumulate here, narrow area between inner and outer membranes |
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| Inner membrane (Mitochondria) |
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Definition
| has convolutions called cristae, oxidative phosphorylation occurs here |
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Definition
| inner fluid of mitochondria, krebs cycle and conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA occurs here |
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Term
| Substrate level phosphorylation |
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Definition
| a phosphate group and associated energy is transferred to ADP to form ATP, substrate molecule donates the phosphate group, occurs during glycolysis |
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Term
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Definition
| without O2 to accept the final electron, NADH accumulates and both glycolysis and the krebs cycle stops. Anarobic respiration replenishes NAD+ so glycolysis can continue, occurs in cytosol |
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Term
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Definition
| energy is removed from NADH and used to form ethanol, a (toxic) waste product so NAD+ can be free for glycolysis to continue |
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Term
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Definition
| Pyruvate is converted to lactate, NADH gives up its electrons, most lactate is transported to liver to be reconverted into glucose once theres extra ATP |
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Term
| Noncyclic photophosphorylation |
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Definition
| electrons are incorporated into NADPH, forms ATP |
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Term
| Cyclic photophosphorylation |
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Definition
| Electrons return to PSI after the electron transport chain, generate ATP |
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Term
| Light-Dependent reactions |
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Definition
| Light energizes electrons in photosystem II, electrons are passed down electron transport chain where ATP is phosphorylated, go to photosystem I where its again energized by light, go down another shorter electron transport chain, form NADPH and ATP, H2O is split to replace the lost electrons |
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Definition
| produces glucose, rubisco catalyzes merging of CO2 and RuBP, uses CO2 from atmosphere + ATP/NADH to make glucose |
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Definition
| fluid material filling inner membrane of chloroplast, Calvin cycle occurs here |
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Definition
| stack is called a granum, light dependent reactions occur here |
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| Rubisco fixes O2, super inefficient/doesn't make glucose, peroxisomes have to waste ATP breaking down products |
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Definition
| CO2 is combined with PEP to form OAA, then converted to malate, then shuttled to bundle sheath cells, malate is converted to pyruvate and CO2. CO2 is spatially segregated to increase efficiency of photosynthesis, less photorespiration, allows the plant to reduce the amount of time stomata are open, reducing H20 loss. Sugarcane, corn, crabgrass |
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Term
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Definition
| CO2 is fixed to OAA, which is converted to malic acid, which is shuttled to vacuole of cell, at night when stomata are open, malic acid accumulates... during the day, hte malic acid is converted back to OAA, releasing CO2, Calvin cycle proceeds. Reduces H2O loss, CO2 is temporally segregated |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromatin condenses, nuclear envelope breaks down, mitotic spindle is assembled |
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Definition
| mitotic spindle connects to kinetochores |
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Definition
| Chromosomes are lined up across metaphase plate, each chromosome is pulled apart into sister chromatids |
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Definition
| Each pole has complete set of chromosomes |
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Definition
| Prophase I, chiasmata, the farther away (map units), the more DNA exchange occurs |
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Term
| Alternation of Generations in spores |
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Definition
| haploid cells that divide by mitosis to become a multicellular haploid structure, the gametophyte. Gametes fuse and produce a diploid cell that becomes the sporophyte. |
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Definition
| Tetrads of homologous chromosomes separate into chromosomes that go to opposite poles, which chromosome goes to which pole is random depending on orientation |
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Term
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Definition
| Surface to Volume ratio: cell growth stops once the volume to surface ratio is too large, because it has to be able to exchange crap. Genome to volume ratio: also stops if the volume is too big for the DNA to handle. Checkpoints: |
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Term
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Definition
| separation of alleles to individual gametes; each gamete contains only one copy of each chromosome |
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Definition
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| P_ x pp, because you know the genotype of a recessive phenotype |
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Definition
| blending of individual expressions of 2 alleles (red + white = pink) |
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Definition
| complete expression of both alleles, cows |
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Definition
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Definition
| one gene affects the phenotypic expression of a second gene; coat color in mice: even if a mice has the gene for brown color, if it doesn't have the gene for color expression, it'll be white |
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Term
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Definition
| a single gene has more than one phenotypic expression: allele for wrinkled texture of seeds also results in them containing more water |
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Definition
| continuous variation of phenotype: tall-short |
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Definition
| reside on same chromosome and cannot segregate independently |
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Definition
| gene resides on X chromosome, males are screwed |
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Definition
| all chromosomes undergo meiotic nondisjunction and produce gametes with twice the number of chromosomes, common in plants.. produces its own viable diploid gametes, reproductive isolation occurs in a single generation |
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Definition
| a genome with extra or missing chromosomes |
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Definition
| Movement of tRNA; movement of carbs through phloem; when a segment of a chromosome is moved to another chromosome |
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Term
| Semiconservative replication |
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Definition
| each DNA molecule has 1 strand that's old (template) and 1 that's new (complementary) |
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Definition
| moves in 3'->5' direction, assembles new DNA strand |
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Definition
| connects okazaki fragments |
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Definition
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Definition
| ends of DNA strands, telomerase attaches them (short sequence of repeating nucleotides) |
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Term
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Definition
| Initiation (Transcription): RNA polymerase attaches to it and begins to unzip DNA |
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Definition
| attaches to 3' end of the mRNA |
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Definition
| provides energy for translation |
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Definition
| new codon codes for a new amino acid |
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Definition
| new codon still codes for same amino acid |
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Definition
| new codon codes for a stop codon |
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Definition
| radiation or chemicals that cause mutations |
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Definition
| DNA polymerase checks over new strand |
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Definition
| enzymes repair errors that escape proofreading |
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Definition
| removes nucleotides damaged by mutagens in original DNA |
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Definition
| DNA-histone complex: DNA is coiled around bundles of histone proteins |
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Definition
| viruses that attack only bacteria, have RNA or DNA, have a capsid (protein coat) that encloses nucleic acid, has an envelop |
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Term
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Definition
| virus penetrates cell membrane of host and uses host to produce viral stuff, assembled into new viruses |
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Term
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Definition
| use reverse transcriptase to make DNA out of their RNA |
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Definition
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Definition
| short, circular DNA molecule outside of chromosome |
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Definition
| DNA exchange between bacteria (awww) |
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Definition
| new DNA is introduced into genome of a bacterium by a virus |
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Definition
| Bacteria absorb DNA from their surroundings and incorporate it into genome |
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| Regulatory proteins (eukaryots) |
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Definition
| repressors and activators, influence how readily RNA polymerase will attach to a promoter region |
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Term
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Definition
| siRNAs block mRNA transcription or translation or degrade existing mRNA |
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Definition
| electric field, DNA is negatively charged, shorter fragments migrate further |
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Term
| Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) |
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Definition
| used in DNA fingerprinting, slight differences in DNA sequences |
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Term
| Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) |
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Definition
| DNA fragments are amplified |
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Definition
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Definition
| basic functional group of muscle (one repetition) |
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| Smaller myofibril, slides into myosin |
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Definition
| principle neurotransmitter |
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Definition
| body parts that resemble one another in different species because of common ancestor (fin, arm, wing) |
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| similar body parts that evolved independently |
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| eliminates individuals with extreme traits |
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Term
| Disruptive (diversifying) selection |
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Definition
| occurs when the environment favors extreme traits |
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Definition
| presence of 2 copies of each chromosome in a cell. in heterozygotes, recessive allele is hidden from natural selection and is "stored" for future generations, results in more variation |
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Definition
| maintenance of different phenotypes in a population |
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| Frequency-dependent selection (minority advantage) |
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Definition
| when the least common phenotypes have a selective advantage |
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Definition
| emigration or immigration of the population (introduction/removal of alleles) |
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Definition
| random increase/decrease of alleles, strong when populations are small |
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Definition
| allele frequencies ina group of migrating individuals are, by chance, not the same as that of their population of origin |
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Definition
| when a population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size |
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Definition
| decreases variation, nonrandom mating |
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| Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium |
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Definition
| no evolution (no natural selection, no mutations, isolated population, large population, random mating) Frequency of homozygotes: (p^2, q^2). Frequency of heterozygotes: (2pq). Equation: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1. (p + q = 1) |
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Definition
| 2 unrelated species share similar traits |
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| 2 related species that have made similar evolutionary changes after divergence from a common ancestor |
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| argues that evolution occurs by the gradual accumulation of small changes |
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Definition
| Ground tissue of plant, serves various functions (storage, photosynthesis, secretion), thin walls |
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Definition
| thick but flexible cell walls, mechanical support of plants |
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Definition
| thick walls, mechanical support |
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Definition
| epidermis cells that cover outside of plants, guard cells, secrete waxy protective cuticle |
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Definition
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Definition
| conduction of water and minerals, 2 cell walls, pits, most are dead at maturity. 2 kinds of xylem cells: tracheids and vessel elements. Perforations are holes between vessels, efficient water movement |
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Definition
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| apical meristems, upward/downward |
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Definition
| lateral meristems, vascular cambium, and cork cambium, width growth |
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