Babies that can barely grasp or suckle

Primates

Babies that are born weak and stubby but can run around w/in short amount a time and don't require mothers support

Horses

Narrow birth canal and large brain (from bipedalism)

Causes very difficult labour and delivery

Very early birth (development wise)

Skull plates unfused at birth

Flexible pelvis

Obligate midwifery

Most Anthropoids

Long lactation

More dilute/ watery milk (less NRG expensive)

No post- partum mating

Some Lemurs, Lorises, and Tarsiers

Short lactation

Milk higher in fat (more NRG expensive)

Post- partum mating

Age of mother

Parity of the mothers experience nulloparous, primiparous, multiparous

Rank of the mother

Temperament of the mother

Temperament of the infant

Species differences

Sex of the infant

Sexual Selection: parental investment, paternity certainty, female choice

Kin Selection: protect sibling's/ maternal kin's offspring

Most common in species w/ paternity certainty in pair-bonded NWM

Males do majority of day infant cartaking

End when infants move independently

Tolerance

Defense and detection against predators

Resource defense for group

Favored when infants require high level of investment

Increase w/ paternity certainty

Paternal Prolactin (Cotton- Topped Tamarins)

Friendly/ positive interactions

Males "babysit" and protect

Side by side foraging (not sharing)

Often, male is father of infant of interactions

Only certain males during certain times

Males indifferent to infants

Typical in males that show

Occasional Affiliation

Tolerate proximity of infant

Males interact w/ infants in way only beneficial to male

Agnostic buffering: use infant as shield in aggressive interactions between two males

Dangerous strategy

Learning to Mother Hypothesis: benefits alloparent, increases individual selection

Mother Relief Hypothesis: benefits mother, kin selection and inclusive fitness for mother and kin

Carrying, protecting, etc. the infant by someone other than the parent

Both affilative (infant handling) or neglect (abuse)

"Aunting to Death": proximate (inexperienced females don't know how to care for infant) and ultimate (trying to get rid of resource competitor)

Disease: 50% of Chacma Baboons infants die from infection

Predation: difficult to determine %, rarely observed

Link to Lactation Time:

Lactating Time (Nursing) > Gestation Time (Pregnant)

If there is a loss of infant, female resumes estrus sooner

Mothers who are Parkers: some Lemurs and Lorises, short lactation, post- partum mating, no infanticide

Mothers who are Carriers: most Anthropoids, long lactation, no post- partum mating, infanticide occurs

Exception: Communal Carriers, no infanticide

Grow quickly: minimize time spent as juvenile, rare in primates

Grow slowly: small bodied, feeding on terminal branches, leads to niche separation (avoid feeding competition), feeding efficiency less than adults, common in primates

MM- MF, FB groups: play w/ kin and friends

Monogamous groups: play w/ neighbours (rare), siblings (if there are any), or parents; solitary play most common

The hypothalamus secretes hormones, activates pituitary glands, and affects the gonads

Gonads cause either stimulates testis to produce testosterone or ovaries to produce progesterone and estrogen

Continuous (from puberty to death)

Differences in Humans and NHP: Division of Labour, Awareness of Mortality, Menopause

NHP: don't share food, each individual complete subsistence unit, no opportunity to become dependent on others, loss of ability to feed self (resulting in death)

Humans: share food, depend on system of production and exchange, individuals highly interdependent, change in ability to produce will change social role

NHP: unlikely aware of own mortality, consider themselves as objects, or to be aware of temporary life, no anticipation of on-coming death

Humans: aware of own mortality, able to understand separate and temporary, know we will die, give meaning to biological changes

Reproductive cessation (stop reproducing/ ovulating)

Grandmother Hypothesis: Menopause directly adaptive (increases production or survivorship of descendants), women stop reproducing because there is a greater fitness benefit to helping daughters and grandchildren than having more offspring

Hadza: grandmothers shortern interbirth interval and help provision grandchildren to gain weight

Geographic ranges of two species do not overlap, separate

Lemurs and Lorises

Two or more species have overlapping geographic ranges

Results in competition for resources (higher w/ increased relatedness of species: Spider Monkeys, Howler Monkeys, and Capuchins)

Niche divergence : partitioning of environment

Competitive Exclusion: complete competitors cannot co-exist

Avoiding Competition: differential spatial use (4 layers of canopy: high, mid, understory, and ground), different diets (fruit eaters: more fruit, larger groups, larger ranges; leaf eaters: more leaves, smaller groups, smaller ranges), different activity patterns (nocturnal versus diurnal)

Outright Interference (context): usually involves aggression, sometimes from interspecific dominance hierarchies

Exploitation (scramble): trying to exploit resources that other species have already exploited

Effects: less successful competitor generally experiences reduction of population density, geographic distribution, ranging patterns, and dietary diversity; hybridization

Access to otherwise inaccessible food sources

Increased predator detection and warning

Social benefits?

Humans: everything

Baboons: small deer, vervet monkeys, flamingoes

Blue monkeys: galagos, bush babies

Capuchins: squirrels, birds, baby coatis

Chimpanzees: galagos, blue monkeys, red-tailed monkeys, black and white colobus, red colobus (kill up to 35% of population w/ social hunting)

Hinder: flower and seed predators, damage to limbs and bark

Help: pollination and seed dispersal

Live inside the animal (e.g. worms, protozoans, viruses, bacteria)

Live inside digestive system (gastrointestinal parasites)

Parasite species do not kill the host; live off it or use it for part of life cycle

Multiple infections may lower hosts survival and fecundity

Keystone, Foundation, Indicator, Flagship

Primates: keystone, indicator, and flagship

"Charismatic" species promote public public support

Useful in protecting entire ecosystem

Vulnerable and Attractive

If this is part of the evolutionary process, why are we worried about a 6th extinction?

What makes this one different?

Rate of Extinction

We may be the cause because of our population, pollution, global climate change, habitat loss, and over-hunting

Social System, Group Size

Body Size

Pace of Reproduction/ Life History

Home Range

Size

Diet

Behaviour

Geographic Distribution

Population Size

Non-anthropogenic factors: environmental and demographic stochasticity

Anthropogenic factors: habitat loss, hunting, disease

Habitat Destruction:

Sumatra, Borneo and Indonesia (98% of forest cleared w/in 14 years)

Amazon Basin (massive legal and illegal logging)

Central Africa (11% degraded to date, logging which leads to markets for bushmeat)

Usually negative

Chimpanzees in Gabon, West Africa: populations declined despite selective logging, reacted to human presence

Folivores and Logging: moderate logging resulted in Black and White Colobus population densities increasing

Hunting for profit in unknown areas; disregard for environment and effect

Results in Empty Forest Syndrome

Higher population density of humans

More urban populations (traditions in big cities)

Participation in cash economy

Rise in number of hunters

Breakdown of traditional resource management

Better weaponry and indiscriminate hunting

Logging roads increase access and logging trucks aid in transport

Bushmeat trade is economically valuable (so why not)

International trade (main problem)

Encourage people to use resources sustainibly

Make natural resources economically viable to local people (they will want to conserve it)

Signal: observable action

Motivation: internal state of the animal (inferred)

Meaning: inferred from context and reaction of receiver

Function: adaptive value of the signal either to sender or receiver

Olfactory: oldest form, use chemical signals, important for solitary or nocturnal species, long lasting communication

Visual: most commonly studied, short range communication

Tactile: intense and intimate social interactions (grooming)

Auditory/ Vocal: variation in pitch and intensity, specialized morphology, referential calls

Selection for...

Spatial mental map of trees

Ability to predict temporal variation in seasonal foods

Extract difficult to find/ eat foods use tools

Selection for...

Ability to deal w/ conflict and alliances

Form dominance hierarchies

Reconcile disputes

Deceive others/ detect deception

Form enduring social bonds

Engage in reciprocity

Keep track of relationships

Behaviour that acts to persuade another to believe something that is false

Involves: flexible behaviour patterns and interactions between or among members of the same species

Theory of Mind

Some species may possess the ability to think about what another individual is thinking

Adult humans possess this, small children do not, other primates probably don't but potentially observed in some adult apes