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| Subfields of Anthropology |
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| Biological, Archeology, Linguistic, Cultural (Ethnology) |
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| fragmentary remains of bones and living materials preserved from earlier periods |
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| material products of former societies provides clues to the past |
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| research strategy where researcher conducts fieldwork in different settings; learn by participating in group's daily activities |
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| description of culture within a society; reports on environmental setting, economic patterns, social organization, political system, ideology |
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| a comprehensive account that draws on all four subfields of anthropology |
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| system of logic used to evaluate data derived from systematic observation |
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data: collected research
hypothesis: testable idea that looks at relationship between sets of DATA
theory: statement that explains HYPOTHESES and observations |
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objective: knowledge that cannot be refuted; facts
subjective: one's opinion or point of view based on experiences, info, beliefs, values, etc. |
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| Book's Definition of Culture |
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| shared way of life that includes material products and nonmaterial products that are transmitted within a society from generation to generation |
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| Paynter's Definition of Culture |
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| human extrasomatic means of adaptation passed on by symbolic learning |
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| patterns of relationships among people within a specific territory |
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| hybrid term of society and culture that is basic conceptual framework for analyzing ethnographic research |
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| consists of various beliefs about the nature of reality that provides people with a consistent orientation toward the world |
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| combination of different beliefs; consists of cultural symbols and beliefs that reflect and supportive interests of specific groups within society |
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| in complex societies with different groups ideologies produce cultural hegemonies; ideological control by one group over values, beliefs, norms |
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ideal culture: what people say they do
real culture: what people actually do |
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| view that cultural traditoins must be understood with context of particular society's response to problems and opportunities; no one society is better than other, all just different |
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| practice of judging another society by values and standards of own society |
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| essential behavioral characteristics of societies found all over the world (language, marriage, food, hair, name, etc) |
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| have all traits of any people in any society throughout world; people with cultural universals |
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| area distinguished by particular climate and certain types of plants and animals |
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| temperate deciduous forest |
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| hwo diferent societies obtain food supplies; depends on biome/environmental conditions |
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| study of population and its relationship to society |
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| maximum population that a specific environment can support; determined by energy and food sources |
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| consists of all human techniques and methods of reaching a specific subsistence goal or of modifying the natural environment; not just tools/tangible items, can be the methods of manipulating, etc |
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| social relationships that organize production, exchange, and consumption of goods and services |
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| consists of specialized economic roles and activities |
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| pattern of relationships within society, framework for all human societies |
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| Ascribed vs. Achieved Status |
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ascribed status: status that is inherited at birth or assumes involunarily (king, prince, etc)
achieved status: based in part on a person's voluntary actions (will you run for president) |
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| social group of two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption who reside together for an extended period of time |
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| Orientation vs. Procreation Family |
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orientation family: family born into
procreation family: family one starts on own |
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| Nuclear vs. Extended Family |
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nuclear family: two parents and immediate biological or adopted children
extended family: composed of parents, children and other kin relations bound in a social unit |
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| serve basic human needs; nurture and exculture children (basic norms, values, knowledge, etc), regulation of sexual activity, protect/support family physically, emotionally, provide social environment of warmth, food and shelter |
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sex: biological differences between males and females
gender: specific human traits attached to each SEX by a society |
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| statuses defined by age through which a person moves as they age (infant, preschool, adult, etc) |
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| Types of Political Systems |
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band: simplest; based on kinship relations in small group
tribe: unite larger groups into poltical system; not centralized
chiefdom: formalized and centralized; establish authority over many communities through economic, social and religious institutions; still organized by kinship
states: centralized bureaucratic instiutitions to establish power over large populations; not based on kinship |
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war: armed combat among different communities
feud: armed combat within a community, usually one kin group taking revenge against another kin group |
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| people's assumed knowledge about the universe and (super)natural worlds and about humanity's place in the world |
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| repetitive behaviors that communicate sacred symbols to members of society; do not have to be religious |
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| analyzing and interpreting myths |
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shamans: part time religious practictioners who are believed to have contact with supernatural beings; no formalized status; participate in same everyday activities as others in society
priests: full time religious specialists who serve official capacity; trained through formal education to maintain religious traditions/rituals |
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| Two Goals when Studying Sociocultural Systems |
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1. improve understanding of a particular sociocultural system
2. provide a basis for comparing different societies and to offer general explanations for human behavior |
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| view that societies evolve in a single direction toward complexity, progess and civilization; ethnocentric view |
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| Franz Boas came up with idea that every society has own unique development, did fieldwork among Inuits; no one society is more civlized than other |
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| Leslie White's Hypothesis of Cultural Evolution |
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| explained differences in societal development by examining differences in technology and energy production; believed culture evolved in relation to amount of energy captured and used by members of society |
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| Juliam Steward on Cultural Ecology |
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| looked at cultural ecology which stresses inter-relationship among natural conditions in evironment and technology, social organization, and attitudes within particular sociocultural system |
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| belived mode of production in material life determined general character of social, political and spiritual processes of life; materialist |
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| challenged tendency to concentrate on male role and underestimate the position of women in different studies; before 70s few women anthropologists so often were overlooked in ethnographic studies |
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| Postmodernists' Criticism |
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| believbed anthropologists could not be completely emotionally removed from ethnographic studies |
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| Anthropologists' Response |
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| ethnographers now include relationships and interactions with people n their studies; are not emotionally attached but are empathetic |
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| conceptual frameworks that present universe as orderly system |
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| Western Cosmological Tradition |
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| most important cosmological tradition affecting Western views is Book of Genesis; God greated all of earth and life on it in six days |
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| process of change in the genetic makeup of a species over time |
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| People Assocated with Ideas of Evolution |
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| Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace came up with plausible mechanism for evolutionary change; noticed variation in living species and interaction with environment |
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| believed a physical trait acquired during organism's lifestime could be inherited by organism's offspring (not true) |
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| discrete units of hereditary information that determine specific physical traits of organisms; DNA sequence that encodes production of a particular protein and determines physical traits of organism |
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genotype: actual genetic makeup of an organism
phenotype: external characteristics of organism that are shaped by genetics and environment |
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| alterations of genetic material at cellular level; can occur spontaneously during cell replication or can be induced by environment |
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| exchange of alleles between populations as a result of interbreeding; introduces new genetic material to population; prevents populations from becoming too different and creating new species |
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| evolutionary change resulting from random sampling phenomena that eliminate or maintain certain alleles in gene pool (founder effect) |
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| genetic change in a population as reflected in allele frequencies as a result of differential reproductive success |
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| specific environmental conditions to which species is adapted to |
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| groups of organisms with similar physical characteristcs that can potentially interbreed successfully |
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| Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium |
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speciation: a gradual process of evolution occurring very slowly as different populations become isolated
punctuated equilibrium: long periods of equilibrium between plants/animals and their habitat with little change until there is a major change that leads to rapid speciation |
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| meteorite is cause of extinction of dinsoarus and rise of mammals; there is competing star that crossed sun's path and blocked it |
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| plate tectonics cause continents to drive together and apart |
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| Science vs. Scientific Creationism |
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scientific creationism: believe there is a biblically based explanation for origins of universe and life; reject moden science; believe universe was created in six days, forty day flood is reason for extinction of animals
science does not back up these ideas |
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hemoglobin: contains iron and gives red blood cells their colour
melanin: pigment in skin that determines its colour
very little melanin causes skin to be pink because red blood cells show through skin (hemoglobin) |
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| individuals living in colder areas have shorter, stockier limbs; longer limbs lose heat faster and are more likely to be found in warmer climates |
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| adventageous in areas with malaria; someone is heterozygous are carriers and will not die, also prevent person from contracting deadly disease malaria |
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people among populations that have pastoralism are more likely to create enzyme lactase
natural selection favored individuals that could use all available sources of nutrition |
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| similar to species or kind; different species of plant/animals |
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| ideology that advocates the superiority of certain races and inferiority of others |
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| scientists don't agree on number; between 3-30 |
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| zones on maps that show distribution of individual traits; may shed light on genetic, environmental, and cultural factors that influenced their distribution; researchers describe variation within species in terms of clinal distribution instead of trying to delineate distinctive races |
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| examines interrelationships among number of different traits; can show traits that are used to identify race that do not reflect human variation accurately |
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| IQ Differences Among "Race" |
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| most documented differences in IQ among races is due to environmental reasons; new culture and environment can affect IQ |
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| people have multiple intelligences; intelligence test is not necessarily accurate because intelligence is not determined by one thing |
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| a proposal in which objectives of a project are set out and the strategy for recoving relevant data is outlined |
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| places of human activity that are preserved in the ground |
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| non-movable artifacts or traces of past human activity suck as fire hearth, or pit dug into the ground |
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| specific location in ground of an artical or fossil |
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| humans did NOT descent from apes; have a common ancestor but evolved into different line |
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cranium: skull
post-cranium: all bones excluding skull |
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| during radiation of placental mammals during Paleocene epoch ofTertiary period; oldest clearly primate dates to Eocene epoch; Promisian primates are earliest followed by anthropoids |
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| cornerstone of social life is relationship between mothers and children; long periods of maturation cause bond |
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| most primates congregate in social groups/communities |
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| defense against predators, enhanced food gathering, social learning, help raising children, more chances to reproduce |
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| social activity of many primates that involves removing ticks fron one another; helps maintain socialbility |
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| Order of Social Relations |
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male dominates over female
older/stronger over younger/weaker
females may dominate over others because able to acquire food and enhance reproductive success |
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| relative social status or rank of a primate; determined by ability to compete successfully with peers for objects of value |
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| reduces chaotic behaviors and promotes orderly conduct, inhibits outright aggression and conflict |
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| fraud; found in 1972 in England; skull had large cranial capacity but ape-like dentition which went against evidence that showed large cranial capacity was one of last things to change over evolution |
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| Taung child was first Australopithecus africanus; ape-like features, foramen magnum was farther foward so it was bipedal, small brain but highly developed brain, teeth closer to size of human than ape |
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| in Northern Tanzania, site with many fossil finds; undisturbed area so fossils are in strata where they were deposited; area was volcanically active so layers of ash cretaed distinct layers that could be dated; first animal of genus Homo found here |
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| located in Northern Kenya, lots of fossils at this site that give information to transition to bipedalism during evolution of hominids; some of earliest hominids found here |
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| found by Johanson's team at Hdar; fossilized skeleton of ancient hominid; one of earliest and most complete fossil huminids uncovered; small cranium, large canines, bipedal |
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| thousands of fossilized footprints of different species of animals; preserved in layer of mud covered by ash, trail 75 ft long proving bipedal creatures roamed earth 3.5mya |
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lumper: believe current taxanomic designations place too much empahsis on differences among individuals and do not sufficiently consider variations within species
splitter: argue that some species designations do not refelct all species represented |
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| Populationist vs. Typological |
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populationist: stress uniqueness of everything in organic world and that no two living thins are exactly the same (lumpers)
typological: believe variation is abnormal and believe species follow a specific norm (splitter) |
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| Multiregional Evolutionary Model |
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| gradual evolution of Homo erectus into modern Homo sapiens took place in many regions at same time; H. erectus populations developed particular traits that varied from region to region, but gene flow between different populations prevented separate species from forming |
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| single-source model; believes Homo sapiens evolved in one area of the world first and migrated to other regions; Homo sapiens were contemporaries of earlier Homo erectus, but eventually replaced them |
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| Partial Replacement Model |
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| Homo sapiens may have emerged in southern Africa first and then migrated outward, in the Near East they met and interbred with earlier archaic populations; interbreeding led to anatomically modern humans hybridized with earlier archaic populations, eventually replacing them |
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| large cranial capacity that could accomodate a brain as large as ours; structure and intellectual capacities of Neandertal brain mirror those of modern huams; artifacts used by these populations have more complex range of adaptive skills than pre-Homo sapien hominids |
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| oldest stone tool industry, Lower Paleolithic, includes simple choppers and flakes |
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| angular blocks of stone with intentionally sharpened edges; used another rock as hammer to break off pieces of rock |
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flaking in manufactured tools follows more regular pattern than a stone that has a sharp edge due to natural process; tools were used to cut meat, bore plants, dig
location: Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, Eurasia, Indonesia, China |
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| sharp, bifacially flaked tool shaped like a large almond; effective for chopping/cutting; fashioned by removing many flakes to get shape |
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| Three Questions Anthropologists Try to Answer |
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1) What is the range of cultural varaition across all space and time?
2) What is the range of variation of human biologicalv ariation across all space and time?
3) Why are there these ranges of variation? |
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out of body response to environment/change
ie: mosquito net, long pants, learning english |
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change within the body in response to environment
ie: tail bone, heterozygous for sickle cell |
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individual: one being has a stimulus and response and learns
social: one being watches another individual go through a stimulus and response
symbolic: direct passing on of results of individual stimulus and response |
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| Components of Model of Culture |
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| subsistence, technology, population, settlement pattern, social organization, economic organization, political organization, ieology |
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How does energy flow?
How is power exercised?
What meaning do the people give to energy and power exercise? |
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| ability to do work; production and distribution of technology |
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| ability to get others to do work, prestigious people have social power and exer through force |
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| Range of Variation in Human Cultures (Energy and Power) |
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egalitarian: equal access to energy, as many positions of prestige as people filling them
ranked: equal access to energy, fewer positions of prestige than people capable of filling them
stratified: unequal access to energy, fewer positions of prestige than people capable of filling them |
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| Three Levels of Somatic Adaptation |
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short term/reversible (ie: warming up)
developmental (ie: growing)
genetic (ie: melatonin) |
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| change in gene frequencies in a population over time, non-directional |
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| non-material, directional, discontinuous |
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| Six Trends in Biological and Cultural Evolution |
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| bipedalism, cranial capacity, dentition, egalitarian, agriculture, stratified |
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| Geological and Cultural Periods |
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Meiocene (25 mya), Pliocene (5 mya), Pleistocene (3 mya), Middle (1.5 mya), Upper (125,000-3500 ya)
Paleolithic Lower (5mya-124,000ya), Paleolithic Middle (125,000 ya), Paleolithic Upper (35,000 ya) Neolithic Early States (10,000-5000 ya) |
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| bipedal, cranial capacity of 400-750cc, fairly larger anterior dentition |
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