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| outdated idea that all life is organized from least perfect to most perfect - humans |
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| In the past, human diversity was... |
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| ancient, permanent, divinely ordained |
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| Do NOT use term race, use... |
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-genetics
-biological adaptation to enviro cond's (physiological)
-cultural |
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| species composed of populations that differ with regard to the expression of one or more traits (ex. Homo sapiens) |
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| physiological responses to change in the environment; can be temporary (sweating), permanent (skin pigmentation), or developmental (can only occur during growth & development) |
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| stresses necessitating acclimitization |
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| hypoxia, intense solar radiation, cold, low humidity, wind, reduced nutritional base, and rough terrain |
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| population level effects of climate on morphological variation (Remember there is always variation WITHIN populations) |
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| average body size in cold climate populations larger than body size in warm climate populations |
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| animals in cold climates have on average shorter, bulkier limbs, whereas animals in hot climates have longer, narrower limbs |
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| any cell forming the body of the organism (ex. skin, muscle, bone, etc.) |
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| package of DNA containing 100's or 1000's of genes |
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| organized profile of a person's chromosomes; average human - 23 pairs, 22 somatic + 1 sex (x or y) |
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| where a particular trait is located, specific part of chromosome |
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| complete chromosome complement (23 pairs) |
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| half of the chromosome complement (23 single gametes) |
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| connects the two sister chromatids (middle, non-coding) |
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| when two alleles on homologous chromosomes are identical |
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| when two alleles on homologous chromosomes are different |
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| genetic make-up of alleles |
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| expressed traits; ex. what you look like |
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-DNA needed to code for a specific protein
-hereditary code for a particular trait |
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structural-body type, etc.
regulatory-turn expression of genes off & on |
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| produce proteins rquired for traits (ex. hair, bone, muscle, blood, etc.) |
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| controls timing of processes; especially in growth & development (Turn other genes on and off). |
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| deoxyribonucleic acid; double helix structure, consists of nucleotides that code for a specific structure; backbone-alternating sugar and phosphate; rungs are nitrogen bases; nuclear, mitochondrial-mtDNA |
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| ribonucleic acid; single strand; messenger mRNA, ribosomal rRNA |
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| organelle in cytoplasm that converts energy to a usable form - contains mtDNA - inherited ONLY from Mom |
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| DNA molecule codes for specific amino acids that codes for specific protein; the creation of proteins by cells that uses DNA, RNA, and various enzymes |
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| two types of cell division |
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production of duplicate somatic cells:
-start with diploid cell
-duplicate chromosomes
-cell divides into two diploid cells |
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Definition
production of gametes
-begins with a diploid cell
-duplication of chromosomes
-cell divides producing two diploid cells
-those cells undergo a second division
-producing 4 haploid cells (which contain half of the genetic information) |
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| a pattern of inheritance in which an affected individual has two copies of the recessive allele for a trait on an autosomal chromosome; ex. include cystic fibrosis, PKU, sickle cell, Tay Sachs, albinism |
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| a pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed equally - both alleles influence the phenotype; ex. AB blood type |
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| traits found only on the X chromosome, and not the Y; note-there are some Y-linked traits, but they are rare and little is known about them |
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| a pattern of inheritance in which an affected father and unaffected mother can only produce affected daughters; never passed father to son, all females of affected males are affected |
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| a pattern of inheritance in which a carrier mother can only produce a carrier or unaffected daughter, and an affected or unaffected son |
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| rare genetic bleeding disorder caused by a shortage of clotting factors; x-linked recessive |
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| a pattern of inheritance in which an affected father can only produce affected sons - rare in humans (ex. hairy ears) |
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mutation
genetic drift
genetic flow
natural selection |
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| change in DNA sequence of a gene due to random error; only source of new genetic material; must occur in a gamete to have evo significance; most have a detrimental effect & are weeded out by natural selection - however, in some cases mutations can be advantageous |
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| ecological crises causes most individuals to die without passing on their genes; random change in allele frequency (ex. catastrophe); occurs in every generation unless only one allele present; greater effect on small populations than large |
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| movement of genes from one population to another; introduces new genes into a population; increases population variation within; decreases population variation between population; greatest determinant - geographical distance |
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| process by which genotypes & phenotypes with greater fitness leave, on average, more offspring than do less fit genotypes and phenotypes; acts first on viability, then on fertility; different levels of fitness depending on genotypes or phenotypes |
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-catlike cry
-problems with larynx & nervous system
-microcephely
-cognitive delays
-growth retardation
-wide-set eyes |
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-female with one X
-short stature
-wide chest
-webbed neck
-puffy hands & feet
-hormonal disturbance |
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-trisomy men have XXY
-tall
-thin
-small genitals
-infertility |
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| three instances of a particular chromosome; ex. Klinefelter's syndrome XXY |
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| suite of characteristics associated with a specific condition |
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| a mutation than changes only one small area or one nucleotide in a gene; ex. sickle cell anemia |
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| red blood cells change shape and do not carry hemoglobin well |
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| caused by a single dominant gene; short limbs, long trunk, large head w/prominent forehead, often occurs due to nucleotide mutation |
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| natural selection observations |
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Definition
-species produce more offspring than can possible survive
-part of the variation in the ability to survive and reproduce is heritable
-individuals vary in their ability to survive and reproduce (fitness level)
also
-can either increase or decrease within population variation
-the only evolutionary force that has direct adaptive consequences
-favors useful genes, while eliminating deletrious ones |
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-simple (ex. A, B, or O blood type)
-complex |
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ex. birth weight
No major change in mean size; reduces variation |
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ex. brain size
selection against one extreme or the other; causes a change in the mean |
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| selection for complex traits |
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| selection for extremes; disruptive; results in a bimodal distribution |
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| study of mechanisms by which heritable traits are passed |
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| looks at how the variation in a population is modified by the forces of evolution; quantitative study of how genes are distributed within and across populations and how gene distributions are patterned against time and space |
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| diagram showing family relationships in order to trace the hereditary pattern of particular genetic traits |
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| group of actual or potential interbreeding individuals of the same species; in humans, defined based on specific questions: spatial, ethnic, language, etc. |
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| all genetic material within a population |
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| change in allele frequencies in a population over time |
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| Hardy-Weinberg law of equilibrium |
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Definition
mathematical model in population genetics that reflects the relationship between frequencies of alleles andof genotypes
-can be used to determine whether a population is undergoing evolutionary change (in a particular trait)
-application of Mendel's principles for populations
-the frequencies of different alleles in offspring are determined by the allele frequencies in the parents |
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Definition
| mating with individuals from groups other than their own; increases chances of new variation |
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| mating with individuals from same group; decreases chance of new variation |
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| Assumptions of Hardy-Weingberg |
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Definition
-infinitely large population
-no mutation
-no gene flow
-no natural selection
Given this, a population's genotype and allele frequencies will remain unchanged over successive generations |
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| Genotype frequency in a population= |
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Definition
| number of individuals with genotype divided by number of individuals in population |
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| frequency (AA)=#AA/population size |
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| The mathematical relationship expressing the predicted distribution of alleles; provides tool to establish whether allele frequencies in a human population are changing |
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Term
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Definition
adenine
thymine
guanine
cytosine |
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Definition
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| nucleotide structure consists of |
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| phosphate, sugar, and nitrogenous base (A,C,T,G); order of bases are what makes up the code |
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| a three base code in DNA; every three bases code for a specific amino acid |
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| weak hydrogen bonds are broken between bases on the DNA molecule separating it into two strands |
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| each side of the DNA molecule serves as a template that is matched up with a new base from the cytoplasm; the complimentary paired new strands of DNA create a new duplicate strand of DNA |
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| the formation of RNA from one of the paired chains in the double helix DNA; mRNA make copies of one half of the DNA strand and takes the code out from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis |
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Definition
-single stranded
-contains a different type of sugar
-instead of thymine, it contains the base uracil |
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| a set of three adjacent nucleotids - aka a triplet |
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| tRNA brings a particular amino acid that is coded for by a specific anticodon to match the codon on the mRNA. A chain of amino acids forms a protein |
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| three bases in transfer RNA |
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| transfer of genetic info from one generation to the next |
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| Mendel's Law of Segregation |
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Definition
| two alleles at a locus segregate when gametes are formed; one allele to each gamete |
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| Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment |
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Definition
| alleles at different loci segregate independently of one another; segregating pairs of alleles sort independently - not linked |
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Definition
autosomal
-dominant
-recessive
-co-dominant
sex linked
-x-linked recessive
-x-linked dominant
-y-linked
-mitochondrial |
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Definition
| heterozygote-offspring of individuals that differ with regard to certain traits or certain aspects of genetic makeup |
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| diagram showing family relationships in order to trace the hereditary pattern of particular genetic traits |
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| describing genetic loci or genes located on the same chromosome (sex linked) |
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| shows different allele distribution from given parent genotypes for EACH offspring |
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| a pattern of inheritance in which an affected individual has one dominant allele for a trait and one recessive allele on an autosomal chromosome; ex. Huntington's, neurofibromitosis, polycystic kidney disease |
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