biological anthropology

focus on human body

primatology

human bio-vultural adaption

human palenotology 

genetics/diveristy

focus on human behavior

ethnology

archaeology

lingustics

applied anthropology

What unifies anthropology?

1. Comparative Approach

2. Hollistic in Approach

3. Cultural Relativism vs. Ethnocentrism

4. Concept of Culture

1. Geograpic Specializations

2. Technical Skills

3. Time Periods

4. Job Related Fields

Geographic Specializations

(subfield of arch)

Classical archaeology- Greece & Rome

Mesoamerican, South American, Near East, African, Australian, North American, Pacific Rim, Asian etc.

Technical Skills

(subfield of arch)

Underwater Arch

Experimental arch- test how things in past done

Chronology/GIS/Paleobotanicals/Lithics/Ceramics etc.

Time Periods 

(subfield of arch)

Historical Arch-text aided

Prehistoric arcj- before written records

Job Related Subfields

(subfield of arch)

Museum studies

Cultural Resource Managment

Contract Arch 

a way to organize, frame and analyze data

CAN NEVER BE PROVEN, new data can alter interpretations

No right or wrong theory, diff theories for diff questions more effectively 

1. What were the origins of human society?

2. What are the functions of institutions within a society?

3. How does an individual fit into their own society? 

1. Culture Historians

2. Unilineal Evolutionists

3. Processual Archaeology

4. Post-Processual Archaeology 

Cultural Historians

*merged with Unilineal evolutionists

1700-1800's

Morgan or Spenser

Described grand stages of Cultural evolution(savagery-barbarism-civilization)

Very simplistic & had little data at the time

1960's

focused on explanation

seeks to dentify how cultural institutions originated

how they changed through time

focuses on ecological arch and better methods 

approaches questions like:

-origin of state or agriculture

-collapse of state systems

-tribal formation

-changes in the structure of social institutions

anywhere that artifacts or other traces of human activity have been found. Boundaries of a "site" are often harder to make than you would think. 

Can chnage after excavation

Smaller but need level of integrity

(grid system)

any significant material object found in association with artifacts which increases our understand of the humans who once occupied an area

i.e. raw chert noudles, wild grass grains 

discrete, non-portable aracheaeological remains which can't be easily removed without destroying their integrity

i.e. burial 

pedestrian survey

best when ground is most clear(early spring/late fall, light snow shows contours)

walk transects (long lines), map surface collections, artifact density maps

relative dating 

(less specific) 

produces a relative time series

1. stratigraphy 

2. seriation

3. relative chemical measures 

chronometric dating 

(more specific)

produces a calender year 

1. Dendrochronology

2. Radio Carbon, 14C dating

3. Potassium-Argon(K-AR) dating

4. Uranium 238: Fisson Track

4. Archaeomagnetic dating

5. Obsidian Hydration dating 

stratigraphy 

(relative)

based on soil strata

-----|

      -------|

           --------|

reverse stratigraphy 

(relative)

common disposition problem arch sites due to consistent slope, eroison conditions

sequence messed up due to human interaction 

based on changes in style or function over time 

relative dating of sites in relation to each other when they are not directly linked by stratigraphy

stylistic change: eye glasses car styles

relative chemical measures 

(relative)

like nitrogen N decreases in bone the longer buried

2 things deposited together at the same time (more or less nitrogen)

dendrochronology 

(chronometric)

tree ring dating

source material: wood

Time range: about 8,000 years ago in SW 

radio carbon

(chronometric)

based on 14C reverting to 12C with a half life of 5,730 yrs.

Source material: Organic, wood, shell, bone

TIme range: 100 to 50,000 years ago-no more 

i.e. 100>50>25>12>6

Potassium-Argon (K-AR) dating

*use simultaneous w/ Fission Tracks

(chronometric)

K40 to Ar 40 gas, half life is 1.3 billion yrs

half of whatever will revert-similar to Carbon dating

Source Material: Volcanic rock

Dating Range: 500,000 to billions of years ago

Uranium238: Fission Tracks

(chronometric)

decayscars crystal, leaving fission-tracks
breaks create scars-fission trackline

^(estimate age) 

Source: Volcanic Rock

Age Range: 500,000 back billions 

Archaeomagnetic Dating 

(chronometric)

shifiting position of Magnetic North-moves align to N. Pole-measure angle of the pole-date

(use other methods to get precise) 

Source: Fired Clays in situ-hearths or floors

Age Range: 50-20,000 years ago

Obsidian Dating 

(chronometric)

hydration rim forms on newly produced obsidian artifacts

*cheap*

Source: Obsidian Tools-volcanic glass

Time Range: 200-20,000+ depends on obsidian (Aztecs, Mayans) 

Elman Service (published in 1962)

based on differences in economics, kinship, political, social & religous structures

leads to variations

1. Bands

2. Tribes

3. Cheifdoms

4. Archaic States

5. Empires (not originally included until 1970)

nomadic-move around

hunting and gathering(wild plants/animals, not gender specific)

kin groups-extended family

25-50 people per group 

egalitarian-equal access to basic resources to sustain life

economic reciprocity-exchange good/service

slow pop. growth rates-sexual post partum, extended lactation pd. 

low pop densities-# of ppl per unit of land

lack of warfare-do not support conflict, too large ofland to protect

paleolithic cultures

nomadic or semi-nomadic

hunting/gathering or horticultural or pastoral

lineage based kin groups of 100-1000's

egalitarian-equal access to basic resources to sustain life

economic reciprocity

slow to moderate pop. growth rates-horticultural/pastoral faster growth rates

Warfare/Raiding common- territory protect/defend

early neolithic farmers

settled villages 

agricultural/horticultural/pastorial

^NOT nomadic

5,000-20,000+ person villages

kin based ranked society-elite/commoners-rank based on ancestors(status-born remains)

NOT egaltarian^

economic redistribution-central location-places w/ a lot of resources to redistribute

rapid pop. growth rates: moderate to high pop. densities

significant warfare

African kingdoms, Mississippian Culture in the US, Easter Island Moai

agricultural

hierarchy of settlement-often urban centers

surplus generation, significant craft specialization-mass produce production

market/money concept

usually written systems for recording (inca exceoption)

taxation/tribute support state-commodity/service

often unstable boundries-Warfare-fluxuate due to war

Elite/Nobility vs. commoners-some stratification (status)

Rapid pop. growth, high densities, urbanization

Egypt, Harrapn, Sumerians, Maya, China

expanding states, generally via warfare/trade-unstable

unstable-last less than 200 years

Aztecs, Inca, China

Britain's colonist period, USSR, US, Japan

exchange good service

generalized- exchange no expectation of return (close kin)

balanced- exchange w/ expectation of equal value return direct/time delay (birthday present-community)

negative- immeadiate exchange w/ goal of getting best deal (outisde social unit)

1. surface survey

2. test pits-sub-surface shovel tests

3. Aerial Photography

4. Remote Sensing

5. Informed Logic/Logical Informants

tests along transects w/ artifact densities recorded

used for sampling, stratigraphy or to define site limits

horizontal, block or aerial excavation

trench excavation, vertical excavation-needs braced

often use combo of methods 

uneven growth of vegetation

unusual soil patterns

foundation (stone) outlines via thermal maps

infrared photography differences

ground-penetrating radar-produces images gives site features, buildings, modern distrubances

metal detectors

satillite images

Geomagnetic imaging- huge fairly accurate map

Thermal maps- stone gives off greater temp than trees, water, ground

Resistiviity scans- 2 ppl gps shows 3 feet below surface of anomilies

sound waves or EM electromagnetic scans

random sampling

use in combo 

generates a statistically representative sample of whole site universe 

i.e. deck of cards 

non-random sampling

use in combo

select specific areas of the larger universe to investigate based on ground knowledge

i.e. unique, only one 

1. Recover, Perserve, Protect Archaeological record 

2. Reconstruct lifeways pf ancient people

3. Reconstruct culture systems-how socirty worked

4. Reconstruct culture history- how society changed

5. Explain cultural evolution

6. Apply knowledge to contemporary issues

- global warming

-rising sea levels

- impact of dams

-culture contact and change

Kingdom- Animalia

Phylum- Chordata

Class- Mammals

Order- Primates

Family- Hominidae

Genus- Homo

Species- sapien

King Paul Came Over For Ginger Snaps

use of binary nomenclature-Genus, speices

speices considered most basic unit-defined as a reproductively isolated unit

cann add levels by supra and sub heading (supra order/sub order)-creates flexibility 

1. young developed within mother's body

2. feed young milk products produced in mammary glands

3. warm-blooded- constant internal temp

4. hair and/or sweat glands-regulate temp

5. brain/body wight ratios large (cerebral hemispheres)

6. two stage tooth series (baby, adult)

7. 3 types of teeth 

-incisors= biting

-canines= piercing

-premolars/molars= grinding

1. Pentadactyly- 5 digits

2. opposable thumb- grasping adaption

3. nail instead of claws-protects & improves dexterity

4. visual shift- sight becoems more inportant than smell (olfactory)

stereoscopic vision, depth perception developed

5. increase in body/brain weight ratios & brain complexity

6. limited litter size (1-2)

7. live in social groups

8. extended infant dependency periods-reproductively viable

9. longer life expectancy

1. Prosimians-34 teeth

2. Anthropoids- 32 teeth

-Ceboidea (newworld) 4+ cusp 

-Cercopithecoidea (oldworld) Y-5

-Hominoids (Apes/Humans) Y-5

~hylobatids (lesser apes-gibbons,siamangs)

~pongids (great apes, gorilla, chimps,orangutan)

~hominids (Humans only)

Ardipithecus ramidus

*first evidence of bipedal

-anatomically changes backbone & pelvis

-pelvis widens to accept structural weight

- wider birth canal

-backbone, esp. tail bone-sacrum, moves

-hip sockets chnge shape and angle

-head attachment to backbone shift alignment

Aegyptopithecus

first anthropoid-32 teeth

-Oligocene peirod (30 mya)

-First evidence of global cooling w/ ice formation around Antarctica

-lived in lush river delta

-streams, forrests, grasslands (maxmize ecological zone)

-turtles, catfish, insects,crocodiles, rodents, birds

-found by Elwyn Simons (1960)-Fayum desert of Egypt

-arboreal, quadrupedal monkey

-32 teeth

-9 to 10 lbs. (fox)

Dryopithecines

first Hominoid-34 teeth 

-Oligocene/Miocene transition (25-12 mya)

-Major drops in world temps (11-14 mya)

-Created land bridge from Africa to Europe (18 mya)

-widespread, many species*

-forest/grasslands w/ river systems

Features:

-Y-5 cusp-similar to OW monkeys

-Size: 25-150 lbs.

-Sexual dimorphism: males larger than females

-Flat pallet-like apes NOT arched like humans

-no cranial size* 

-fossil teeth, large canines (protective/sexual display)

-herbivores or omnivores

-lack critical (10-5 mya) when apes & humans diverged 

Ramapithecines

2nd Anthropoid-34 teeth

-Miocene (15-8 mya)

-Very cold, low temps

-located in Africa, Europe, *Asia*

-grassland, forest/river interface

Features:

-large size variation 25-100 lbs

-dental patterns similar to humans & apes /\

-large canines, back molars better for grinding

-diet similar to baboons

-Brain size: 330cc

Ardipithecus ramidus

FIRST HOMINID-humans

-earliest human 4.5 mya

-Aramis, Ethiopia

-17 known individuals

-first evidence of bipedal

-forest/grassland

-still being analyzed 

1. Australopithecus africanus

(Australopithecus)

-found by Raymond Dart in 1925 in South Africa

-poorly dated due to lack of volcanic activity

-3-2 mya

-brain size: 450-500cc

-mystery of how it fits in human evolution

-premolars are bicuspid (human trait)

-bipedal

-small, gracile skull

-proognathous faces

2. Robust Australopithecines

(A. aethiopiecus, A. boisei, A. robustus)

(Australopithecines)

-very large specialzied animals

-vegetarians

-Eastern & Southern Africa

-3-1 mya

-specialized, ecological niches (similar to Panda)

-very large, coarse, fiberous plant foods

-None considered in line to humans

3. Australopithecus anamensis

(Australopithecines)

-4-4.17 mya (Potassium-Argon dating)

-80 individuals known

-from Allia Bay on Lake Turkana, Kenya

-paralell dental teeth rows like apes

-ear holes smaller (apes)

-shorter arms (limb portions like humans)

-bipedal, shorter legs-less effcient

-hands (apes)-longer bones

-100-120 lbs. 

-brain size: 400-500 cc

4. Australopithecus afarensis (LUCY*)

(Australopithecines)

-3.5-3 mya

-savanna, river edge

-Hadar Ethipois: Laetoli, Tanzania

-large

-brain size:400-500 cc

-fully bipedal

-human bones/shorter bones (could use tools)

-evidence of increase infancy dependency

-human-like U shaped dental arcade

-find in East Africa but ALSO in Koto Toro, Chad (Western Africa-large range)

5. Australopithecus garhi*

surprise in local language

first evidence of stone tool use

-Awash desert of Ethiopia 

-2.5 mya

-4'10" 

-400-500cc

-molars&canines 2-3 times bigger than humans

-arms longer than humans (apes)

-bones of an antelope have butcher marks from stone tools-first evidence of tool use

-protruding faces (apes)

Homo habilis

lower paleolithic

-2-1.8 mya

-750-800cc

-bipedal

-Oldowan biface core tools

Site: Olduvai Gorge, Mary Leaky

-Hunting vs. scavenging hypothesis

-pebble tools

Homo erectus

lower paleolitchic 

-2.5 mya-300,00 Before Present

-1000 cc

-Acheulian core tools

-Sites: 

-Torralba-Ambrona, Spain (hunting sites)

-Terra Amata, France (habitation sites)

-Zhoukoufian, China (cave deposits)

-40+ Homo erectus

-60+ animal species

-100,000 stone tools

-triangle/chisel

Homo sapiens neanderthal

middle paleolithic

-300,000-100,000 years ago

-1400 cc

-Mousterian Flake tools

-Ritual life, burials

-Sites:

-La Ferrassie, France

-Teshik-Tash, Himalayan Mts.

-Shanidar Cave, Iraq

Homo sapiens sapiens

upper paleolithic 

-100,00-35,00 Before present

-1450 cc

-Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenia, Perigordian, Gravettian Regional Blade tools

-cave art & use of symbols

-dogs living w/ domestic groups

-emphasis on bone and antler working

-trade networks

-Sites:

-Grotte de Chauvet, France (Bear Cave)

-Gravettian complex, Eastern Europe

D'uktai Tradition-NE Asia