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ANTH 2020 EXAM 1
Genetics CU BOULDER
120
Anthropology
Undergraduate 2
02/08/2012

Additional Anthropology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
4 mechanisms of biological evolution:
Definition
genetic drift
gene flow
natural selection
artificial selections
Term
specific def of anthropology
Definition
Anthropology is a holistic, four field approach to studying humans that includes cultural anthropology, linguistics, archaeology, and biological anthropology.
Term
GENETIC DRIFT
Definition
Is the random changes in allelic frequencies is one population through time.
Term
Founder Effect-
Definition
establishment of a new population by a few original founders who carry only a small portion of the total genetic variation of parental population.
Term
Bottle Neck
Definition
population crash reducing genetic variation
Example: bubonic plague
Term
Gene Flow
Definition
Interchange of alleles (genes) between and within populations
Term
Long-term termination of gene flow between 2 populations ultimately results in ________________
Definition
allopatric speciation
Term
Exogamy:
Definition
mating outside the group
Term
Endogamy:
Definition
Mating within the group (inbreeding)
Term
Natural Selection
Definition
changes in genetic frequencies (or gene changes) in populations as a product of differential reproductive success between individuals
Term
4 simple steps to natural selection (on test)
Definition
1) overpopulation
2) inherited genetic variation within the population
3) Those individuals with the “genes” or adaptations most suitable to their environment should survive and reproduce
4) offspring of individuals that reproduced physically resemble their parents
Term
Artificial Selection-
Definition
intentional (sometimes unintentional) modification of a species by humans which encourage some traits over other traits via breeding.
Term
Non-random mating
Definition
pattern of mating in which individuals mate preferentially with others that look or behave similarly to themselves
Term
Genetic Mutation:
Definition
changes in genetic nucleotide sequences due to copying errors or environmental insults
-Genetic mutations are random and frequently lethal. Mutations give rise to new genetic variants in a species. An advantageous mutation may result in differential reproductive success at the individual level and speciation at the population level.
Term
A _________ is a segment of DNA the contains a sequence for a protein
Definition
Gene
Term
_____ is the nucleic acid that contains the genetic information for the development, functioning, and maintenance of all known organisms
Definition
DNA
Term
Prokaryotes
Definition
organisms with no nucleus
These organisms include bacteria and archaea
Term
Eukaryotes
Definition
organisms with DNA bound within a nucleus
These organisms include animals, plants, fungi and protists
Term
endosymbiotic theory
Definition
-In animals, mitochondria possess their own DNA
-In plants, chloroplasts possess their own DNA.
^
Based on this evidence, researchers have proposed the endosymbiotic theory which suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from bacteria (or bacteria like organisms) and were engulfed by eukaryotes but not digested
Term
3 Chemical Components of DNA
Definition
1) Sugar- 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
2) Nitrogenous Base- A- adenine, Cytosine C, Guanine G, Thymine T
3) Phosphate- negatively charged phosphate groups (which give DNA its negative charge)
Term
Physical structure of DNA:
Definition
“Backbone” composed of sugars and phosphates

2 Strands “double helix”

Complimentary C=G A=T

Nitrogen bases held together by hydrogen bonds
These bonds break during DNA replication, DNA transcription and when denaturalized by researchers
Term
Rosalind Franklin
Definition
Worked for Watson and Crick and took the first photo of DNA – later died of cancer
Term
DNA helicase
Definition
separates the double helix
Term
Histones
Definition
positively charged proteins that DNA wraps tightly around
Term
where does DNA replication occur>?
Definition
DNA replication occurs in the cell nucleus
Term
DNA can only replicate itself and synthesize proteins from ___ End to the __ End !!!
Definition
DNA can only replicate itself and synthesize proteins from 5’ End to the 3’ End !!!
Term
what do Single stranded DNA binding proteins do?
Definition
Single stranded DNA binding proteins keep the parent DNA strands separate
Term
DNA polymerase III
Definition
gathers the free floating DNA components in the nucleus and replicates the 5’ end (leading strand). Replication for this strand is complete

Remember that the 3’ parent strand must replicate from 5’ end to 3’ end, this makes it slower (the lagging strand)

The lagging strand is replicated via small DNA strands called Okazaki Fragments.
Term
A RNA Primase does _____
Definition
lays down an RNA primer on the lagging strand
Term
DNA primase III gathers _______
Definition
DNA primase III gathers the free floating DNA components and lays down new DNA to compliments the lagging parent strand
Term
DNA polymerase I
Definition
replaces the RNA primers on the lagging strand
after primase 3 does stuff
Term
DNA ligase does what
Definition
connects the Ozaki Fragments
Term
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Definition
is process by which DNA and RNA create a protein
Term
The process of protein synthesis includes two phases:
Definition
The process of protein synthesis includes two phases:
Translation and Transcription
Term
Transcription
Definition
the process by which the nucleotide sequence on the parent strand of DNA is “read”
Term
Translation (protein synthesis)
Definition
process by which the mRNA molecule converts this sequence (the read sequence) into a polypeptide (i.e. Protein)
Term
RNA- Ribonucleic Acid
Definition
Single stranded molecules similar to DNA that are responsible to taking DNA messages (DNA nucleotide sequences) from the nucleus of a cell to the ribosome in the cytoplasm and then facilitating translation of this message into a polypeptide (protein). Single stranded “backbone” of sugars nd phosphate
Term
3 chemical components of RNA
Definition
1. Sugar- 5 carbon sugar (ribose) with an extra oxygen atom
2. Nitrogenous Base- Uracil, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine
3. Phosphate
Term
mRNA- messenger RNA
tRNA- transfer RNA
Definition
messenger RNA, transfer RNA
Term
Redundancy phenomenon of amino acids
Definition
There a 64 possible three-letter nucleotide sequences possible 4 to the third power. However there exist only 20 amino acids. Some amino acids are comprised of several nucleotide sequences. This phenomenon is known as redundancy.
Term
AMINO ACIDS
Definition
in total there are 20 amino acids. Some of these amino acids we can synthesize. These are referred to as non-essential amino acids.
Term
2 broad categories or genetic Mutation:
Definition
1- copying areas
2. environmental insults (radioactivity, drinking booze)
Term
POINT MUTATION
Definition
mutation in which a single base pair is replaced by another (incorrect) base pair. This may alter gene expression
Term
Genetic Insertions
Definition
the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs in a sequence. Usually due to the DNA polymerase slipping.
Term
Genetic Deletions
Definition
mutation in which a part of chromosome or sequence of DNA is missing
Term
HeLa Cells Have a very active version of telomerase an enzyme that prevents the shortening of __________
Definition
telomeres

Telomerase adds telomeric DNA to the ends of chromosomes, thus compensating for the loss of telomeres that occurs as cells divide.
Term
Point mutation : example
Definition
Point mutation :
Original: the fat cat ate the rat
Point mutation: the fat hat ate the rat
RESULTS:
1. sickle cell anemia
2. thalassemia
Term
DELETION:
Definition
DELETION:
Original: the fat cat ate the rat
Deletion the fat ate the rat

Result:
1. cystic fibrosis
Term
INSERTION
Definition
Original: the fat cat ate the rat
Insertion: the fat eek cat ate the rat.
Results:
1. hemophilia
Term
Frame-shift mutation (one or more bases are inserted or deleted)
Definition
Original: the fat cat ate the rat.
Frame shift mutation: the fat caa tet her at.
Examples: duchenne muscular dystrophy
Term
Genetic inversion
Definition
(an entire section of DNA is reversed )
Term
DNA fingerprinting-
Definition
chemical structure of all species’ DNA is the same. The only difference between individuals is the order of the base pairs. There are so many millions of base pairs in each person’s DNA that every person has a different sequence.
USES: maternity testing, paternity testing, forensics, personal identifications
Term
DNA hybridization-
Definition
process by which DNA is heated and denatures to form single strands and is then cooled and the double helix re-forms (re-naturation at regions of sequence complementarity. This technique is useful for determining sequence similarity among DNAs of different origins and the amount of sequence repetition within one DNA
Term
Molecular Cloning
Definition
Procedure by which genetically identical cells or organisms are produced by asexual methods
Term
HeLa Cells
Henrietta Lacks (1920-1951)
Definition
dies from cervical cancer
-poor, African American tobacco farmer
-mother of 5

George Gey
-cultivates henriettas cells and names the HeLa Cells
-Gey and others were attempting to grow human cells for 30 years
- Gey gave HeLa cells to others, the name HeLa Cells remain unknown for decades
50 million tons of HeLa cells = 150 empire state buildings
Term
The Tuskegee Institute – massive production of HeLa cells
Definition
(~6 trillion/ week)
-HeLa Cells were.are the first human cells cultivated for profit
-HeLa are immortal and still used throughout the world
-HeLa cells have been used to understand numerous viruses and were instrumental in the polio vaccine
-HeLa cells have also been used as models to understand cancer and carcinogens
-Researchers sent HeLa cells into space to examine the effects of zero gravity on human cells

Despite the multi billion dollar industry of HeLa cells (1 vial can sell for $10,000), the Lacks family have yet to receive any economic compensations

In fact, her son, David cant afford health insurance and is in $100,000 in debt for a bypass surgery
Term
Telomeres
Definition
Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of all human chromosomes, they contain thousands of repeats of the six nucleotide sequence, TTAGGG
Term
Hayflick limit.
Definition
Once telomere shrinks to a certain level, the cell can no longer divide. Its metabolism slows down, it ages and dies.
Human skin cells divide about 60 times. After 60 divisions, the chromosomes stop acting properly and eventually die this is called the Hayflick limit.
Injected with telomerase, skin cells may experience over 1000 divisions
Term
Cancer and Telomerase
Definition
Cancer cells continue to grow and divide when they should not. In most cells, the chromosomes shorten at their ends (telomeres) with each cell division. When those ends become too short, either the cell stops growing or it dies. Cancer cells produce telomerase, which adds DNA sequences (ttaggg) to the telomere, preventing them from shortening.
Term
oncogenes
Definition
Mutated genes that cause cancer
Term
Oncoviruses
Definition
are viruses that may cause cancer. In Humans, that most well known is the human papilloma virus HPV
Term
Transgenic Species
Definition
a species that possesses a gene or genes from another species.
Term
Before Mendel, naturalists believed that offspring inherited their physical traits by a process of ___
Definition
“blending” the mothers and fathers genes.
Term
Gregor Mednel “father of modern genetics”
Definition
Augustinian Monk
Conducts experiments on pea plants.
Records his results and uses mathematical applications
Trained physics, chemistry, math, biology

Develops 2 laws in biology
The law of segregation and the law of independent assortment
Term
Pea plants have male and female sexual reproductive organs. They are ___
Definition
monoceius
Term
Dioceious –
Definition
two houses, individuals of these species exhibit either male or femal sex organs
Term
Allele
Definition
variant of a gene
Term
Phenotype
Definition
observable physical traits of an individual
Term
Genotype
Definition
the genetic constitution of an individual (may or may not be expressed)
Term
Heterozygous-
Definition
individuals that possess two different alleles Aa
Term
Filial Generation (F1, F2, F3…) is the
Definition
offspring of parents
We are our parents F1 generation
Term
When F1 individuals pollinate, a 3:1 phenotypic ratio is exhibited in the F2 generation. That is 3 individuals will express the dominant allele and 1 will express the recessive. This was found by ______
Definition
Mendel in around 1850
Term
Law of segregation
Definition
Since Mendel observed plants with recessive traits in the f2 generation, he concluded that blending is not the mechanism for heritable traits.
Mendel hypothesizes that parents carry gene variants (via sperm and egg) and these variants segregate during reproduction
Experiment 2:
The Dyhibrid Cross True bred parents exhibiting 2 (dihybrid different alleles are cross-pollinated. (AABBx aabb). Their offspring self- pollinate and produce f2 generation
There f1 offspring will be heterozygous AaBb for the 2 triats and will exhinit the dominant alleles.

The f1 offspring will produce AB Ab aB and ab gametes

The phenotypic ratio for the dyhybrid cross is 9:3:3:1
Term
LAW of Independent Assortment
Definition
Mendel hypothesize the alleles for pea color and texture and either “linked” or “unlinked”. Linked alleles (or genes) occur on the same chromosome “mix up” more often due crossing over in Meiosis

Mendel found for pea color and pea texture there existed 4 variants. The phenotypic ratio was 9.3.3.1. Mendel reffered to these new pea colors and shapes as recombinant phenotypes

Mendel concludes that the alleles of different genes assort independently of each other during gamete formation. This is the LAW of Independent Assortment

Mendel hypothesize the alleles for pea color and texture are either “linked” or unlinked”. Linked alleles (or genes) occur on the same chromosome are generally inherited together.
Term
3 Exceptions to Mendel’s Laws:
Definition
Genetic linkage, Incomplete Dominance, Codominance
Term
Genetic Linkage
Definition
This occurs when particular alleles are inherited jointly
When Two or more alleles are found on the same chromosomes they are often inherited together and do not assort independently.
In fruit flies, body color and wing shape are linked.
Term
Incomplete Dominance
Definition
In some species the heterozygotes express a “intermediate” between the dominant and recessive allele. This is known as incomplete dominance. If you have a red and white, as f1 and then u take pink f2 and mate it with a white f 1 then you get one pink and one white.

Leopard complex in horses is an example of incomplete dominance.
Term
Codominance
Definition
two alleles producing two different phenotypes. Neither allele is dominant nor recessive. vv
Term
Chromosomes
Definition
large macromolecules of DNA found in a cell’s nucleus
Term
Sister Chromatids-
Definition
one of two identical strands of DNA on a chromosome connected by a centromere
Term
Centromere
Definition
region of chromosome that connects the sister chromatids. It is the strongest and thinnest region.
Term
P-arm: -
Q-arm-
Definition
petite arm or small arm of chromosome,

queue or long arm of a chromosome
Term
Telomere
Definition
ends of chromosomes, comprised of repeat DNA sequences
Term
Locus
Definition
the specific location that an allele lies on a chromosome
Term
The two types of chromosomes-
Definition
1. autosomal chromosomes: any chromosome other than a sex chromosome
2. sex chromosomes: chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism
Term
chromosomes in humans
Definition
In the humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in total). 22 pairs are autosomal (44 chromososmeS) and 1 pair are sex chromosomes (2 chromosomes)
Females Posses two X chromosomes written as XX
Males possess one x and one Y written as XY
Term
Karyotypes:
Definition
illustration of the number, types and forms of chromosomes in a particular organisms cell.
Term
James Watson and Francis Crick
Definition
1953- Discovered the DNA molecule
1962- Receive the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine (with Maurice Wilkins)
Term
stages of mitosis
Definition
(Interphase)
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
(Cytokinesis)
ip(on)mat
Term
Spermatogenesis-
Definition
the production of sperm cells. Results in 4 haploid sperm cells.
Term
Oogenesis
Definition
the production of an ovum (egg cell). This process results in 1 ovum and 3 smaller polar bodies. Each is haploid, however the polar bodies disintegrate and are absorbed by the body. The end result is 1 haploid ovum.
Term
Independent Assortment
Definition
Independent Assortment
You can make 8,888,888 different combinations of your mom and dads chromosomes and so can your mate.
Term
Chromosomal Disorders
Definition
abnormalities in the number and or structure of chromosomes
Term
Three Broad Categories of Chromosomal Disorders
Definition
1. numerical chromosomal disorders
2. structural chromosomal disorders
3. Sex linked Chromosomal disorders
Term
Aneuploidy
Definition
a condition which an organism exhibits an incorrect number of chromosomes.
Term
Monosomy
Definition
presence of only one chromosome
Term
Disomy
Definition
– presence of a pair of chromosomes (the normal condition in humans, abnormal in other specie)
Term
trisomy
tertrasomy
pentasomy
Definition
Trisomy- presence of three chromosomes (in humans we observe trisomy 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 21, XXX, XXY, XYY)
Tetrasomy- presence of four chromosomes (in humans we observe XXXX, XXXY, XXYY, XYYY)
Pentasomy- presence of five chromosomes (in humans we observe XXXXX XXXXY XXXYY XXYYY XYYYY)
Term
Most numerical chromosomal disorders are the result of nondisjunction. what is nondisjunction
Definition
Nondisjunction refers to the failure of chromosomes to segregate in mitosis or meiosis during Anaphase. The result of nondisjunction is an abnormal number or chromosomes in daughter cells
(the two pairs get packed to one side instead of one on each side)
Term
Monosome C “turners syndrome”
Definition
Monosome C “turners syndrome” envelopes a broad range of disorders. However monosomy X is the most frequent. In these cases a female is born with only one X chromosome. Females with this disorder have menstrual disorders are sometimes sterile. Physical characteristics include webbed necks, feet, and hands at birth and childhood, short statue, obesity, and fluid around the neck.
Term
Trisomy 21 “down’s syndrome’
Definition
Trisomy 21 “down’s syndrome’ – probably the most common form of mental retardation. Individuals with trisomy 21 can have limited to severe mental retardation. Physically, they exhibit short stature, short necks, broad tongues, and epicanthic skin folds. People suffering from this disorder exhibit sleep apnea, gastrointestinal problems, congenital heart defects, and thyroid problems.
Term
Trisomy 13:
Definition
Trisomy 13: “patau Syndrome” occurs when a child is born with an extra extra chromosome 13. This disorder leads to severe mental retardation. Physically children with the disorder exhibit scalp and skin disorders, microcephaly, cleft palates, small eyes, eyes that are fused together, extra digits and limb malformations
Term
Klinefelter’s syndrome XXY or XXX
Definition
Klinefelter’s syndrome XXY or XXX occurs when males and females are born with an extra chromosome X. Males are usually sterile, exhibit small genetalia and sometimes develop breast tissue (this is due to increases in hormones). Femlaes with this syndrome are usually normal.
Term
Structural Chromosomal Disorders
deletion
duplications
translocation
inversions
chromosomal rings
Definition
Structural Chromosomal Disorders
Deletions- loss or deletion of a portion of a chromosome
Duplications – a duplicate of a portion of chromosome that results in extra genetic material
Translocations- occurs when one chromosome breaks and its fragments are incorporated by another chromosome
Inversions- portion of a chromosome is broken and its fragment is reattached “upside down” (inverted)
Chromosomal Rings - chromosomes that form a “ring” after its ends have been lost. The distal end of each arm fuses together. In humans all chromosomes have been observed with this disorder but it primarily occurs with chromosome 13, 14, 15, 20, and X
Term
codon
Definition
units of 3 nucleotides of DNA that is transcribed by mRNA in transcription
Term
ozaki fragments
Definition
small DNA strands that replicate the lagging strand (DNA ligase connects the fragments)
Term
haploid cell
Definition
cell consisting of 1 copy of each chromosome
Term
Diploid cell
Definition
cell consisting of 2 copies of chromosomes (1 maternal and 1 paternal -- one full set)
Term
karyotype
Definition
A karyotype (Greek karyon = kernel, seed or nucleus) is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. The term is also used for the complete set of chromosomes in a species, or an individual organism
Term
centromere
Definition
A centromere is the region of a chromosome that directs its behaviour during cell division
Term
where does protein synthesis take place?
Definition
ribosomes
Term
sickle cell anemia - the inheritance
Definition
Sickle-cell conditions are inherited from parents in much the same way as blood type, hair color and texture, eye colour, and other physical traits. The types of haemoglobin a person makes in the red blood cells depend on what haemoglobin genes are inherited from his parents. If one parent has sickle-cell anaemia (SS) and the other has sickle-cell trait (AS), there is a 50% chance of a child's having sickle-cell disease (SS) and a 50% chance of a child's having sickle-cell trait (AS). When both parents have sickle-cell trait (AS), a child has a 25% chance (1 of 4) of sickle-cell disease (SS), as shown in the diagram.
Term
microtubules
Definition
Microtubules are a component of the cytoskeleton. These rope-like polymers of tubulin can grow as long as 25 micrometers and are highly dynamic. The outer diameter of microtubule is about 25 nm. Microtubules are important for maintaining cell structure, providing platforms for intracellular transport, forming the spindle during mitosis, as well as other cellular processes
Term
allele
Definition
is one of two or more forms of a gene or a genetic locus (generally a group of genes).
Term
kinetechores
Definition
is the protein structure on chromatids where the spindle fibers attach during cell division to pull sister chromatids apart.
Term
The New Biology: What Price
? Relieving Man's Estate
summary
Definition
Referring to Francis Bacon's 17th-century definition of modern science as the conquest of nature "for the relief of man's estate," Kass looks with concern at the ironic possibility that future advances in medical science and technology may lead to the significant diminishing of humankind. Thus he asks, what price will we wind up paying for medical progress? Kass is concerned about the disconnect between modern medicine, with its powers to extend our controls over life and death and over many human potentials, and, on the other hand, traditional social and individual values.

He argues particularly for serious consideration of values in three areas: (1) distributive justice (which for Kass is, finally, the question as to who shall do the distributing), (2) the "use and abuse of power" (in which he focuses on the process by which power over nature becomes turned into power of some humans over others), and (3) "voluntary self-degradation and dehumanization" (two major concerns being the concept of the optimum baby and the development of technologies of pleasure).
Term
the stem cell challenge (reading)
Definition
The possibility of replacing or regenerating failing body parts with new tissues derived from stem cells has provoked hope, controversy and conflicting scientific claims.
Embryonic stem cells offer primordial potential, but scientists are still struggling to understand and control them. Stem cells in the adult body may be easier to marshal for some tasks, but their true origin and range of abilities are still unresolved.
Many hurdles, both scientific and political, remain before stem cell treatments can be widely applied to patients.
Term
the suffix ase
Definition
The suffix -ase is used in biochemistry to form names of enzymes
Term
Curse and blessing in the ghetto
Definition
The article is entitled Curse and Blessing of the Ghetto ' In this article , the author talks about a genetic disease , called the Tay-Sachs disease , which common to Jews of Eastern European decent . The author urges us to learn more about the disease and to finally be able to conquer it . In addition , learning more about the Tay-Sachs disease may also help us to eventually learn more about other genetic diseases and finally find a way to cure them
Term
Why Genes Don’t Count (for Racial Differences in Health) Alan H. Goodman, PhD
summary
Definition
There is a paradoxical relationship between "race" and genetics. Whereas genetic data were first used to prove the validity of race, since the early 1970s they have been used to illustrate the invalidity of biological races. Indeed, race does not account for human genetic variation, which is continuous, complexly structured, constantly changing, and predominantly within "races." Despite the disproof of race-as-biology, genetic variation continues to be used to explain racial differences. Such explanations require the acceptance of 2 disproved assumptions: that genetic variation explains variation in disease and that genetic variation explains racial variation in disease. While the former is a form of geneticization, the notion that genes are the primary determinants of biology and behavior, the latter represents a form of racialization, an exaggeration of the salience of race. Using race as a proxy for genetic differences limits understandings of the complex interactions among political-economic processes, lived experiences, and human biologies. By moving beyond studies of racialized genetics, we can clarify the processes by which varied and interwoven forms of racialization and racism affect individuals "under the skin."
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