bridewealth - goods presented by the groom's kin to the bride's kin to legitimize a marriage (formerly called "bride price"), most common exchange, sometimes returned if marriage is terminated, characteristic of Africa

brideservice - the culture rule that a man must work for his bride's family for a vairable length of time either before or after the marriage, most common in foraging societices, Ju/'hoansi of the Kalahari do this, it may be up to 15 years or 3rd child

presentation of goods given by the brides family to the grooms family, is associated with private ownership of property

among european peasantry, consisted of bride and belonged to couple, usually household items for their new home

continually outlawed but especially important in india

viewed many diff ways -> voluntary gift, acknowledgement that grooms family is taking on an economic burden

insufficident dowry has been linked to emotional blackmail of the womens family, wife abuse and even death

occurs in less societies than bridewealth

process by which senior family members exercise a great degree of control over the chioce of their childrens spouses

males are picked on economic potential and females on reproductive potential, health, and physical attractiveness

not common in US - we go for sexual compatibility, emotional needs, physical attractiveness, and personality = romantic love

in india woman must be, or pretend to be, submissive and modest

levirate - the custom whereby a man marries the widow of a deceased brother ->children, in some cases, stay in deceased man's line so that the woman can keep her children and they stay in the same line

sororate - the custom whereby when a man's wife dies, her sister is given to him as a wife, children then stay in wifes line

-both show alliance between two groups rather than between two individuals

-a rule allowing more than one spouse at a time

-includes polygyny and polyandry, about 75% of population

-many wives is a sign of power so chiefs, headmen, and state leaders have many wives

-more wives/children = greater labor supply and productivity

-tiwi in australia, foraging group, more people = more food collection

-westerners claim this is oppressing women, but they actually have high statuses and accord women a high degree of sexual and economic freedom

-co wives usally live in separate dwellings

-relatively rare, mainly in tibet, nepal, and some indigenous groups like the toda in india

-usually fraternal, brothers marry a single wife

-due to shortage of land, resources, or women due to female infanticide

cultural and social classification of masculine and feminine

-social, cultural, and psychological constructs that different socieities superimpose on the biological differences of sex

-what meaning to they attach to male and female

-the idea that gender characteristics are the result of historical, economic, and political forces acting within each culture

gender - a cultural construction that makes biological and physical differences into socially meaningful categories

sex - the biological difference between male and female

-or two-spirit

-fulfill one of many mixed gender roles found traditionally among many Native Americans and Canadian First Nations communities.

Third gender roles historically embodied by Two-Spirit people include performing work and wearing clothing associated with both men and women. The presence of male two-spirits "was a fundamental institution among most tribal peoples."^[1] Male and female two-spirits have been "documented in over 130 tribes, in every region of North America, among every type of native culture."^[2]

-

• healers or medicine persons
• conveyors of oral traditions and songs (Yuki)
• foretellers of the future (Winnebago, Oglala Lakota)
• conferrers of lucky names on children or adults (Oglala Lakota, Tohono O'odham)
• nurses during war expeditions
• potters (Zuni, Navajo, Tohono O'odham)
• matchmakers (Cheyenne, Omaha, Oglala Lakota)
• makers of feather regalia for dances (Maidu)
• special role players in the Sun Dance (Crow, Hidatsa, Oglala Lakota)

-an alternative gender role in india conceptualized as neither man nor woman

-born male but considered neither, undergo operation to remove genitals -> eunuchs

-incorporate the goddess powers of procreation -> their presence is required at weddings and at the birth of a child

-look like women

-the cultural expectations of men and women in a particular society, including the division of labor

-learned through enculturation

-patriarchy -> a male dominated society in which all important public and private power is held by men

-matriarchy -> a female dominated society in which women hold all important public and private power

-power: the ability to impose one's will on others, the abilty to exert control over the actions of other people and to make ecisions that affect them

-authority: the ability to cuase others to act based on characterisitcs such as honor, status, knowledge, ability, respect, or the holding of formal  public office

-a small group of people related by blood or marriage, who live together and are loosely associated with a territory in which they forage

-usually 20-50 people, tend to be egalitarian, decision making is among the concensus

-Select leaders on basis of personal qualities and skills-

-a culturally distinct population whose members consider themselves descended from the same ancestors

-mainly among pastorials and horticulturalists, tend to be egalitarian, exchange goods through reciprocity and redistribution,

-a society with social ranking in which political integration is achieved through an office of centralized leadership called the chief

-an autonomous political unit comprising a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief

-made up of social parts that are structurally and functionally different from one another

-have centralized leadership

-a sovereign, geographically based state that identifies itself as having a distinctive national culture and historical experience

-

less warfare<--------->more warfare and higher frequency

less centralized<-------------------------->more centralized

bands, tribes, confederacies, chiefdoms, sate societies

-lacking a government head or chief

-tribes tend to be acephalous

-

-informal and formal mechanisms in society through whcih peoples behavior is controlled and social norms are enforced

-positive and negative sanctions, informal and formal sanctions

positive - recognition and rewards granted to people who behave according to social norms

negative-formal or informal methods of discouraging people from behaving improperly

informal-rewards and punishments expressed through praise, ridicule, gossip, and the like

formal-rewards and punishments administered by persons in authority, the state, or the law

-informal alliances within well-defined political units such as lineages, villages, or organizations

-

the (usually elite) construction of ieologies, beliefs, and values that attempt to justify the stratification system in a state society

-how they manage to dominate

-(Gramsci 1971)
The internalizing of rulers’ values and accepting

the ‘naturalness’ of domination.

Accepting hierarchy as natural. (naturalized concept)

 -

-ascribed: a social position into which a person is born, based on characteristics from birth such as race, ethnicity, family of origin, or biological sex

-achieved: a social position that a person chooses or achieves on his or her own

egalitarian: Egalitarian doctrines maintain that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or social status

ranked: is one that ranks individuals in terms of their genealogical distance from the chief. Closer relatives of the chief have higher rank or social status than more distant ones. When individuals and groups rank about equally, competition for positions of leadership may occur. In some cases rank is assigned to entire villages rather than individuals or families. The idea of a ranked society was criticized by Max Weber and Karl Marx.

stratified: is a concept involving the "classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions ... a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions."^[1] It is a system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy ^[2] Social stratification is based on four basic principles: (1) Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences; (2) Social stratification carries over from generation to generation; (3) Social stratification is universal but variable; (4) Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well.^[3]

-movement from one social stratum to another

-even in open systems, ascribed statutes always play a role in moving from one class to another, in closed systems, there is little or no possiblity to move = caste

-upward or downward

-is this a reality?

-caste membership is hereditary

-ascribed status

-enogamous and unchanging membership

-race:is a cultural category that groups people according to so-called "racial" distinctions -> human genome project-proves there are few differences, resembles idea of caste, socially defined

-ethnicity:social category based on a complex mix or ancestry, culture, and self-identification ex: irish, polish, german

Race is a cultural category that

groups people according to so-called

 “racial” distinctions.

Race is a cultural category that

groups people according to so-called

 “racial” distinctions.

Race is a cultural category that

groups people according to so-called

 “racial” distinctions.

-Patterned behavior following conflict to restore

some degree of harmony

-Rituals or beliefs in witchcraft may provide the
means of avoiding or resolving conflict.

-people are witches if their bodies contian a magical witchcraft substance generally acguired through inheritance