Paratoid - moisture

Sublingual - mucin/mucoid

Submaxillary - mucin/mucoid

What are the muscle movements that are found within the esophagus and small intestine?

peristalsis - one way movement through muscle contraction

segmentation (SI) - back and forth movement through muscle contraction

What are the parts of a non-ruminant animal's digestive tract?

1. Mouth

2. Esophagus

3. Stomach

4. Small Intestine (SI)

5.Cecum

6. Large Intestine

7. Rectum and Anus

1. Prehension - obtaining food

2. Mastication

3. Deglutition - swallowing food

4. Regurgitation - more common in ruminants (impossible in horses)

1. Muscular tube connecting mouth to stomach.

2. Peristalsis

3. Deglutition - swallowing of bolus

4. Cardiac sphincter - closes to keep contents in stomach

1. Storage

2. Mixing (food+gastric secretions= chyme)

3. Empties at controlled rate through pyloric sphincter

4. Chemical and Enzyme digestion (HCl, Pepsin, Rennin)

5. Bacteriostat (pH ~ 2)

1. Parietal Cells = HCl production

2. Chief or Peptic Cells = Pepsinogen production

The secretions from these cells mix with mucus.

1. Smell, taste or thought of food

2. Gastrin - most powerful stimulator

3. Acetylcholine

4. Histamine

5. Protein

1. Acid

2. Antihistamine

3. CCK

4. Fat

5. OTC Production

6. Osmotic Pressure

1. Pylorus relaxes

2. Acidic food slips through

3. Acid entering SI causes pylorus to close

4. Pylorus reopens when acidic chyme is neutralized

1. Long tube for digestion and absorption of nutrients (pH = 6-7)

2. Main site of enzymatic digestion

3. SI lining must be healthy to function

1. Duodenum - recieves secretions from pancreas, gall bladder (bile) and intestinal walls

2. Jejunum - main site of digestion

3. Ileum - main site of absorption

blind gut - important in the horse and rabbit

1. Main function is to absorb H2O and electrolytes

2. Storage of feces until it is expelled out of the anus

3. Bacterial Action

What is meant when the pancreas is described as having both an endocrine and an exocrine function?

1. Endocrine (Insulin and Glucagon)

   Insulin - released from beta cells

   Glucagon - released from alpha cells

2. Exocrine (Enzymes and Bicarbonate)

Gastric - gastrin (stimulates) and CCK (inhibites)

Pancreatic - secretin (stimulates secretion) and released from S-cells in SI

Bile - CCK stimulates contraction of Gall Bladder

What is the function of bile during the digestive process?

emulsification - fractioning large lipid droplets into much smaller lipid droplets

micelle formation - bile acids surround smaller fat droplets with bile for transport

What hormones are produced in the pancreas and what do they do?

Insulin - helps to lower sugar levels in the blood

Glucagon - helps to elevate blood sugar levels

Somatostatin - helps stop the release of either insulin and glucagon in your blood

Pancreatic polypeptide - prevents secretion of somatostatin by your pancreas

1. Food enters stomach (stimulate muscle secretions)

2. Stomach wall secretes gastrin(hormone) into blood

3. Stomach glands secrete HCl

4. Acid stops gastrin secretion (pH is now 1.5)

What is the function of the pancreas in the digestive process?

The pancreas releases Bicarbonate which is used to buffer the acidic chyme released into the duodenum of the SI.

Step 1 - stimulus (acid chyme from stomach)

Step 2 - Secretin(hormone) released from S-cells of SI

Step 3 - Secretin travels through the blood to the pancreas

Step 4 - causes pancreas to release bicarbonate

What features of the digestive tract (small intestine) allow for maximal absorption?

1. Length

2. Folds

3. Villi

4. Microvilli

What are the compartments of the ruminant stomach and their function?

1. Reticulum (Honeycomb) - particle separation

2. Rumen (Paunch) - microbial fermentation

3. Omasum (Manyplies) - absorption of water, Mg, and volatile fatty acids produced in rumen

4. Abomasum (True Stomach)

They become lunch for the host.

What anatomical peculiarity exists in the young suckling ruminant?

Esophageal or Reticular Groove - connects esophagus to omasum in young cows until rumen develops and matures

Rumination

Regurgitation and chewing on cud

Eructation

Removal of gas

What are the water compositions on Earth?

Ice Caps/Glaciers - 2% 

Oceans - 97%

Ground Water - 1%

*Only 0.003% of Earth's water is available for direct human use

What are the sources of water for the animal?

1. Drinking water - inbibed water

2. Water in feed -

    Green Forages - 80%

    Stored Grains - 10-12%

    Hay - 12-15%

    Silage - 60-70%

3. Matabolic water

Which nutrients yield metabolic water during metabolism and the approximate yields?

1. Carbohydrates -60% of molecular weight liberated as water upon oxidation

2. Protein - 42% of molecular weight liberated as water

3. Lipids or Fats - 108% of molecular weight is liberated as water upon oxidation

How is water lost from the animal body?

1. Excreted in the urine

2. Sweated out as part of temperature regulation

Explain the function of water in maintaining body temperature and the properties of water that make it possible.

1. Water has a high specific heat capacity (1 cal/gm C)

2. No other substance is as efficient as water in transferring heat

3. Blood is mostly water

4. High heat of vaporization - animals are cooled via evaporation / heat transfer from surfaces (i.e. skin, lungs)

Additional functions of water besides maintaining body temperature.

1. digestion - hydrolysis to break bonds

2. vision and hearing - water is transparent and conducts sound

3. low viscosity lowers resistance (lower blood pressure)

4. Universal solvent - highly polar

5. Shock Absorber - pregnancy, joints, resistant to compression

What is meant by isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic in relation to animal cells?

Isotonic - same concentration inside and out of cell

Hypotonic - outside of cell is less concentrated than inside (cell swells)

Hypertonic - outside is more concentrated (cell shrinks)

List the fluid compartments in the animal body.

1. Inracellular - 2/3 of all body water

2. Extracellular - 1/3 of all boddy water

   Intravascular - water within bloodstream and    lymph

   Interstitial Fluid - water that is bathing cells and removing toxic wastes

List the common monosaccharides in animal nutrition.

Pentoses - 5 carbons

1. Xylose - corn cobs

2. Arabinose - beet tops

3. Ribose - RNA, DNA, ATP (found in all cells)

Hexoses - 6 carbons

1. Glucose

2. Fructose

3. Galactose

List the common disaccharides in animal nutrition.

1. Maltose = 2 glucose units linked α 1,4

2. Cellobiose = 2 glucose units linked β 1,4

3. Sucrose = Glucose + Sucrose

4. Lactose = Glucose + Galactose

List the common polysaccharides in animal nutrition.

1. Starch - Amylose and Amylopectin

2. Cellulose

3. Hemicellulose

4. Lignin

5. Chitin

6. Dextrins - glue-like

7. Dextrans

What is chitin?

Sturctural polysaccharide of the exoskeleton of insects, shrimp, lobster, crabs, etc

It is a β linked glucosamine polymer which is indigestible

What is lignin?

Content increases with the age of plant and serves two general purposes for plants:

1. Strengthens cell wall by anchoring the cellulose

2. Protects cellulose from chemical, physical and biological attack

1. Salivary amylase breaks α 1,4 bonds (continues in stomach till pH < 4)

2. Pancreatic amylase released due to presence of CCK

3. Lactase, sucrase, maltase and α 1,6 glucosidase (dextrinase) in SI

4. End products of digestion are glucose and galactose (absorbed actively) and fructose (absorbed passivley/carrier mediated)

1. Begins in rumen where microbes digest carbohydrate and metabolize the glucose and pyruvate (further metabolism of pyruvate yields VFAs)

2. Other products are lactate and methane

3. End products of rumen digestion are VFA, Lactate and Methane

4. End products of SI digestion are glucose and galactose (don't have sucrase)

5. All products are absorbed actively

What are VFAs?

volatile fatty acids

1. Acetate used for fat production (60-70% of diet)

2. Propionate used for glucose (15-20% of diet)

3. Butyrate used for energy (10-15% of diet)

*Increasing amount of grain increases propionate and decreases acetate (ratio → 1)

Approximate Relative Feeding Values (RFV) for the various grains.

1. Corn = Reference Feed Grain (100%)

2. Grain Sorghum (Milo) = 95%

3. Oats = 80%

4. Barley = 90%

5. Rye = 70%

6. Wheat = 105%

7. Triticale = 105%

1. Corn = 56 lb/Bu

2. Grain Sorghum (Milo) = 56 lb/Bu

3. Oats = 32 lb/Bu

4. Barley = 48 lb/Bu

5. Rye = 56 lb/Bu

6. Wheat = 60 lb/Bu

7. Triticale = 50 lb/Bu

What is by-pass starch and why is it important?

* A carbohydrate that is not going to be digested by microbes in the rumen.

* Important because it allows ruminants to get some of the nutrients from those starches instead of just the biproduct

What VFA is associated with milk fat formation, with glucose formation?

Acetate - milk fat formation

Propionate - glucose formation

What is glycogen?

Storage form of glucose - when body systems are in a state of anabolism

*catabolized when glucose is in short supply

What is ATP?

ATP = Adenasine Triphosphate

* food provided to animals contains potential energy

* each mole of ATP contains 7.3 kcal

* stores energy that is released during breaking of phosphate bonds

The non-enzymatic browning reactions.

1. Carmelization - sucrose at 135°C melts and turns brown, if continued heating get pure carbon (black)

2. Ascorbic Acid Browning - at 40°C under aerobic conditions dehydroascorbic acid - melanoidins

3. Maillard Reaction - occurs between the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar and basic amino acid (soybean meal contains tripsin inhibitor)

Oxidative Phosphorylation

* occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane

* 3 ATPs generated from NADH

* 2 ATP generated from FADH

* ATP and H20 are the end-products

Glycolysis

* Occurs in cytoplasm of cell

* Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is main enzyme

* End products are 2 ATP, 2 NADH (=4 ATP) and Heat

Anaerobic glycolysis yields lactic acid → 4 ATP

Oxidative Decarboxylation

End Products = 2 CO2, 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 NADH, Heat

Energy Yields = 2 NADH → 6 ATP

Krebbs (TCA) Cycle

End Products = 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2ATP, Heat

Energy Yield = 6 NADH→18 ATP, 2 FADH2→4 ATP, 2 ATP

Regulation = α-ketoglutarate, dehydrogenase, citrate cythesis

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Energy Yield = NADH→3 ATP, FADH2→2 ATP

End Products = ATP, H20, Heat

Complete Glucose Oxidation

End Products = 38 ATP gross (36 ATP net), 6 CO2, 12 H2O, Heat

Vitamins Needed = thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, panafenic acid (part of CoA)

What is an oil?

Esters of glycerol that are liquid at room temperature

Acylglycerol

What is a fat?

Esters of glycerol that are solid at room temperature

Acylglycerol

What is a fatty acid?

A hydrocarbon with an acid radical

What is a triglyceride?

3 FA + Glycerol connected by ester bonds

*95% of all lipids found in the body are in this form

Lipid digestion in non-ruminants.

1. Mouth - lingual lipase (minor digestion)

2. Stomach - gastric lipase (minor digestion)

3. Small Intestine

    - release of CCK stimulate bile secretions and gall

      bladder contractions for emulsification and

      micelle formation

    - pancreatic lipase - breaks down triglycerides (cleaves FA from 1 & 3 positions)

    - cholesterol esterases - breaks down cholesterol esters

    - phospholipases - cleaves different phosphoglycerides

    - procolipas - converts to colipase allowing enzymes

      to bind to lipids

Lipid digestion in ruminants.

* microbes attack lipid releasing FFA, using glycerol backbone for energy

* high concentration of hydrogen ions saturate most of the FFA

Number of carbons and double bonds associated with the following fatty acids:

palmitic acid

stearic acid

oleic acid

linoleic acid

linolenic acid

arachidonic acid

Palmitic Acid = 16C and 0 double bonds

Stearic Acid = 18C and 0 doouble bonds

Oleic Acid = 18C and 1 double bonds

Linoleic Acid = 18C and 2 double bonds

Linolenic Acid = 18C and 3 double bonds

Arachidonic Acid = 20C and 4 double bonds

The importance of having fiber in the diet if you want milk fat.

?

Name the essential fatty acids.

Linoleic and Linolenic Acids

Draw the metabolic triangle (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids)?