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| The functional unit of the kidney |
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| Two elements that make up the kidney |
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| Renal tubule and vasculature |
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| Part of the nephron. A tube constructed from a singer layer of epithelial cells. |
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| Main part of the vasculatur, which is a sub-part of the nephron. A twisted ball of capillaries that delivers fluids to the tubule. |
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| the mouth of a renal tubule. A cupcake like expansion that surrounds the glomerulus. Fluids that enter Bowman's capsule and move down the lumen through successive specialixed regions of the tubule: proximal tubule, loop of Henle, and distal tubule. |
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| long, straight vessels that run along the loop of Henle |
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| Specialized type of epithelial cell that covers the outer surface of the capillary. Have foot processes, which are cytoplasmic extensions that help form the filtration structure |
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| Similar to smooth muscle cells, wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus. When they contract they restrict blood flow to specific vessels within the capillary network, regulating blood pressure within the glomerulus to control filtration. |
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| cuboidal epithelial cells with abundant mitochondria and microvilli. Involved in energy-dependent solute transport processes. Reabsorbs salts and organic metabolites. Specialized for transport. Important site for ammonia production. |
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| Divided into a descending limb, a loop, and an ascending limb. The first part (descending limb) is made of cuboidal epithelial cells like the proximal tubule. These are gradually replaced with squamous epithelial cells that have a thicker wall. In the ascending limb the walls remain thick. Main job is to transport water, but is not a major site of transport for solutes. |
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| site of lots of reabsorption of Glucose using ATP |
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| after the loop of henle. most epithelial cells have simple membranes with few microvilli. known as a principal cell. Mediates K+ secretion, NaCl reabsorption, and hormone-sensitive water recovery. Important for water recovery. |
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| Glomerular Filtration Rate |
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Definition
| the amount of filtrate produced per minute. Controlled by 3 main forces: glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure, Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure, and the net oncotic pressure. |
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| ontraction refers to a myocyte contraction that originates from a property of the myocyte itself. I.e. the contraction is initiated by the cell itself, not an outside occurrence or stimulus such as nerve innervation. |
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| Extrinsic regulators of GFR |
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| Alters the permeability of the collecting duct via increasing the number of aquaporins. Responsible for the recovery of water from the tubule. Peptide hormone. Produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland. Release stimulated by increasing plasma osmolarity detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. Release is inhibited by increasing blood pressure detected by stretch receptors in atria and baroreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies. |
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| osmotic concentration of the final urine depends on permeability (aquaporins) of the collecting duct, which can be regulated by vasopressin. |
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| Mineralcorticoid in tetrapods. Steroid hormone. Targets cells in the distal tubule and collecting duct. Stimulates Na+ reabsorption from urine. Enhances K+ excretion. Also stimulated by increases in circulating K= |
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| Detected and controlled by hypothalamus |
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| driven by active reorganization of the cytoskeletal network. The cytoskeletal fibers act as bulldozers that push the cellular contents forward. Common in protists. |
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| Most cells gather the ends of microtubules near the nucleus of the cell at the microtubulelorganizing center MTOC. They radiate from the MTOC like spokes of a wheel. The outside is the positive end. |
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| Microtubule formation within cells |
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Definition
Microtubules form spontaneously.
1. Both subunits bind to a molecule of GTP
2. Alpha and Beta combine to form tubulin
3. The GTP bound to beta may be hydrolyzed into GDP. While the GTP on Alpha remains intact.
4. Molecule becomes polarized by #3. Alpha is minus end and beta is plus end.
5. Multiple tubulins assemble end to end with the plus end growing.
6. The chain grows and is known as a protofilament.
7. Critical length is reached and protofilaments line up side by side to form a sheet
8. A sheet of 13 protofilaments becomes a microtubule. |
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| Proteins that bind to the surface of microtubules, stabilizing or destabilizing the structure. |
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| A type of MAP that binds to the plus end of microtubules and prevents them from growing or shrinking. Used on cells that need long, stable microtubules. |
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| Temperature effects on microtubules |
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Definition
| The colder it gets the more they disassemble |
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| Microtubule protein that moves in the plus direction towards the outside of the cell. Can pick up vesicles filled with neurotransmitters and move them to the outside. |
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| Microtubule protein that moves towards the plus end, inward. |
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| Microfilament composition |
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Definition
| Actin and its motor protein myosin |
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| can spontaneously assemble and disassemble without energy investment. Polymerizes spontaneously when concentration is above threshold. Can grow from both ends. Can mediate some form of movement. |
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| Binds on the minus end of a microfilament to prevent it from disassembling. |
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| thin rodlike extensions of the cell formed by actin fibers. |
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| ATPase that converts the energy released from ATP hydrolysis into mechanical energy. |
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| Shows how a myosin head walks along an actin polymer. The myosin molecule extends by straightening its neck, pushing the head forward. The myosin head then forms a bond with the actin, This is called a CROSS BRIDGE. Myosin bends, pulling actin wards its tail. This is called the POWER STROKE. |
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| includes formation of the cross-bridge, the power stroke, and return to the resting, unattached position. At the beginning of the cycle myosin is tightly bound to actin and the ATP binding site is empty. If no ATP is available, the myosin remains firmly attached. Once ATP binds, myosin loses its affinity for actin, and the crossbridge is broken. Release of actin activates the myosin ATPase to break ATP down to ADP and phosphate. The hydrolysis of ATP causes myosin to extend forward to grasp further up the actin microfilament. |
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| the distance myosin steps during each crossbridge cycle. The step size depends on the length of the neck. |
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| Microfilament shape and consequences |
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Definition
| Microfilaments are spirals, twisted into a helix with a period. Myosin walks with an average unitary displacement of 36 nm, therefore it remains on the same side of the spiral as it travels along the microfilament. |
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| The proportion of time in each crossbridge cycle that myosin is attached to actin. Most nonmuscle myosins have a duty cycle of .5. This means the myosin is tightly bound to atin for only half of each cycle. Muscle myosin II has a very short duty cycle about .005 |
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| The myosin polymer that forms the backbone of a multiprotein complex in the contractile elements of all muscles. |
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| composed primarily of Alpha actin. Stabilized in a way that prevents spontaneious growth or shrinkage. |
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Tropomodulin - caps thin filaments at the minus end
CapZ - caps thin filaments at the plus end |
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| mediate the interaction between actin and myosin, thereby regulating contraction. |
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| Muscles such as cardiac and skeletal muscle have a striped appearance. They arrange their thick and thin filaments in a highly organized fashion. |
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| Muscle that lines blood vessels and viscera. Do NOT appear stripped. Are used to induce slow regular contractions. Don't have thin and thick filaments arranged into sarcomeres. Function through Gap Junctions. Lacks T-tubules |
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| One thick filament surrounded by an array of thin filaments (typically 6). |
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| A protein plate that forms at the end of each Sarcomere. Thin filaments then extend from the Z-disk, with the minus end of the actin chain directed toward the center of the sarcomere. The double-headed thick filaments are arranged between Z-disks, spanning two opposing thin filament arrays. This structure ensures that bouquets of myosin heads are kept in a location where they are able to bind to actin |
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| Contraction ability of sarcomere |
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Definition
| The contraction ability and strength is directly related to the overlap between the thin and thick filaments . The more overlap the stronger the contration. |
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| A single continuous stretch of interconnected sarcomeres |
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| Cell membrane of a muscle |
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| Excitation-contraction coupling |
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Definition
| The translation of an excitatory signal at the sarcolemma into a stimulation of contraction. Elevates Ca concentration. This increase in intracellular Ca activates the actino-myosin machinery to induce contraction. Relaxation ensues when the Ca falls to resting levels. |
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| Effective refractory period |
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Definition
| The time in which striated muscle cells can not be depolarized again until the re-polarization phase is near complete |
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| are stimulated by the actions of neurons |
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| Involved in pacemaker cells. Is permeable to both Na and K. When opened an imbalance in Na influx and K efflux leads to a slow depolarization |
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| Neurogenic skeletal muscles that are innervated by one or occasionally more neurons. Action potential spreads quickly along the sarcolemma |
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| Vertebrate striated muscles with multiple innervations. Are NOT all or none |
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| Little "pipes" that run through the Sarcolemma in order to increase the speed of action potential |
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| open for a Long period with Large conductance |
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| Regulate the effects of Ca. Binds to the thin filament and prevents myosin from binding to actin. When the Ca increases the soluble protein calmodulin binds to Ca, then binds to caldesmon. The calmodulin-caldesmon complex dissociates from actin and allows the formation of cross bridge between myosin and actin |
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| L-type channels. Activation induces Ca+ release from SR |
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| The muscle endoplasmic reticulum. Has it's own Ca+ channels and Ca ATPase |
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| excitation contraction coupling. In muscles. |
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| Can transport substances across long distances far faster than would be possible by diffusion alone. Circulatory, respiration, and digestion. Occurs when an external force is applied to the fluid, setting it in motion. |
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| Primary site of diffusion of materials into the tissues. Do not constrict or dilate. Lack tunica media and tunica externa |
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| Three layers of a blood vessel |
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| Tunica Intima, tunica media, tunica externa |
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| What determines velocity of flow |
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| pressure and cross-sectional area. |
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| Two phases of the cardiac cycle |
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| contraction period of the heart. Increasing pressure within the chambers of the heart forcing the blood out. |
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| Relaxation . Reduction in pressure within the chambers of the heart allow for blood to enter the heart from the circulatory system. Passively fills until the next Systole. |
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| sac like structure that surrounds the heart |
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| Located between the atria and ventricles allowing blood to flow from the atrium to the ventricle, but Not in the reverse direction |
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| Located at the exit from the ventricles. Prevent blood from flowing backward into the ventricle |
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| Located in the right atrium where the superior vena cava enters the right atrium. Location of the pacemaker cells of the heart. The depolarizations spread via gap junctions. |
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| Cardiac action potentials have |
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Definition
| an extended depolarization phase called the plateau phase. This corresponds to the refractory period of the cell. Almost as long as the entire muscle twitch. |
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| internode pathway between the SA node and the VA node |
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| re located in the inner ventricular walls of the heart, just beneath the endocardium. These fibers are specialized myocardial fibers that conduct an electrical stimulus or impulse that enables the heart to contract in a coordinated fashion. |
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| allows the heart to automatically compensate for increases in the amount of blood returning to the heart. |
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| Arterioles play a primary role in... |
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Definition
| controlling blood distribution. Because they can vasoconstrict or vasodialate they have the ability to move blood where it needs to go. Surrounded by smooth muscles |
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| small amounts released all the time helps to keep arterioles dilated. |
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| How arteries effect the blood pressure |
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Definition
| When blood backs up in the aorta the pressure causes it to expand. When the heart enters diastole, blood ceases flowing into the aorta, but it continues to flow out. So the aorta snaps back in a form of elastic recoil propelling blood through the circulatory system. |
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| Stretch sensitive mechanorecptors that are located in the walls of many of the major blood vessels |
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| Cardiovascular control center |
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| Red Blood cells. Most abundant cells in the blood of vertebrates. lack nucleous. last about 4 months |
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Definition
1. Neutrophils - most common leukocyte in vertebrate blood. Engulf damage cells, microorganisms, and other pathogens.
2. Eosinophils - can perform phagocytosis, but their main function is to act as delivery vehicles for cytotoxic chemicals.
3. Basophils - leave the circulatory system and accumulate in the interstitial fluid at the site of an infection or other inflammation. Releasing toxic chemicals that kill invading microorganisms. Release histamines, prostoglandins, and increase blood flow to the site of infection.
4 - monocytes circulate in the blood of most mammals only breifly, quickly leaving the bloodstream and entering the interstitial fluid where they grow much larger and develop into Macrophages. Like neutrophils, macrophages are phagocytic, engulfing foreign invaders and dead and dying cells.
5. Lymphocytes - T cells and B cells are involved in recruiting macrophages and neutrophils to the site of infection |
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| Branches from the primary bronchi |
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| Blind-ended sacs called alveoli that are the sight of gas exchange |
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| responsible for gas exchange |
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| responsible for a variety of functions including maintaining the fluid balance across the lungs and secreting lipoproteins called surfactants. |
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| surrounds the lungs with a small amount of fluid between them, forming a space called the pleural cavity. The fluid lubricates teh pleura and allows the two layers to slide past each other during ventilation. The pressure in the pleural cavity is normally subatmospheric |
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| expresses how easy it is to stretch a structure |
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| expresses how readily the structure returns to its original shape. |
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| Reduce the surface tension of the fluid layer lining the lungs, thus reducing the tendency of the walls of the small airways and alveoli to stick |
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| type of hemoglobin found in muscles. Provides them the oxygen they need for metabolism |
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| a measure of how readily the pigment binds to oxygen. |
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| the oxygen partial pressure at which the pigment is 50% saturated. It has an inverse relationship to affinity. Pigments that require relatively low partial pressures for Oxygen to bind are said to have a high affinity for oxygen. |
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| Effects of pH and Partial pressure of CO2. |
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| Both lower oxygen affinity thus pushing the curve to the right. |
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| A group of enzymes that work together to perform a function and are spatially localized in the cell |
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| similar to smooth muscle cells wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus. Contraction restricts blood flow. Regulates blood pressure. |
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